Political Parties

Political party is a Formal Organisation which nominates candidates for elections to the legislatures. Basic aim of the political party is to acquire power in the society and the manifestation of this acquisition of power is the formation of the govt. Sociologists use the term 'Political Party' to refer to an organization whose purposes are to promote candidates for elected office, advance an ideology as reflected in positions on political issues, win elections and exercise power. The political party is one of the major channels through which people exert political influence. The party acts as an intermediary between the individual and the government. It gathers information about government and politics presents it in simplified form to the electorate It Nominates candidates for political office and campaigns on their behalf.In a democracy there exist many groups which strive to get power. These group may profess different, and many a time conflicting ideologies and various shades of opinion. They include within themselves the members of various classes and races and a variety of opinions. It is for the people to choose between these different parties as their representatives in an election. These groups are referred to as political parties.

Functionally, political parties are understood as groups of citizens more or less organised who act as a political unit and who, by the use of their voting power, aim to control the government and carry out their general policies. According to Maclver “A political party is an association organised in support of some principle or policy which by constitutional means endeavors to make the determinant of Government”.

Five characteristics usually distinguish parties from other groups.

• First, parties aim to exercise government power by winning office. Most the political parties aim at acquiring political power for controlling the government. They take part in elections and seek membership of the legislative bodies to form the opposition groups to check, criticize and control the government.
• Second, parties are organized bodies with a formal membership restricted to citizens only. Its members are disciplined according to certain norms and rules. They cannot achieve their aims without some sort of organisation. This distinguishes them from broader and more diffuse social movements.
• Third, parties typically adopt a broad issue focus, addressing each of the major issues of government policy. Unlike pressure groups which focus on specific issues of interst to their members.
• Fourth, to varying degrees, parties are united by shared political preferences and a general ideological identity. The member of a party is distinguished from the member of another party by thoughts and policies.
• Fifth, As distinguished from revolutionary party, a political party has faith in constitutional means of changing the Government. If the constitution is abolished political party has no validity.

According to Sirsikar (1964), growth of the party system would depend upon the type of the society. He has classified societies in four groups:

• homogeneous underdeveloped society,
• homogeneous developed society,
• heterogeneous underdeveloped society, and
• het­erogeneous developed society.

Homogeneous society is one which has one religion, one language and one dominant race, whereas heterogeneous society is one which has plurality of religions, languages, races, castes, etc. An underdeveloped society is one which has low level of economic devel­opment, singularity of purpose, and lacks urgency of goal-attainment. Example of the first type of society is Italy, of the second type are Ger­many, China and Russia, of the third type is the United States and of the fourth type are India and Pakistan. The last type of society has multiple parties with different ideologies.

Types of political parties

Political parties are divided into right, centre and left according to their inclinations as to the process of achievement of policies. While a rightist party encourages gradualism in the attainment of welfare, a leftist party talks about revolution and radicalism to achieve its aims. A centrist party includes both rightist and leftist elements.But in actuality we cannot clearly classify parties on this basis as most of the parties have mixed ideologies. Thus in India while the Congress includes even socialist elements, the extreme left wing parties support a rightist party like the Janata in policies.

Political parties can also be classified as mass and cadre parties. A mass party places a heavy emphasis upon broadening membership and constructing a wide electoral base, the earliest examples being European socialist par­ties which aimed to mobilize working-class s-support, such as the UK Labour Party and the German Social Democratic Party (SPD). Such parties typically place heavier stress upon recruitment and organization than on ideology and political conviction. A cadre party, on the other hand, is dominated by trained and professional party members who are expected to exhibit a high level of political commitment and doctrinal discipline, as in the case of communist and fascist parties.

Representative and integrative parties, Neumann (1956) offered the alternative distinction between representative parties, which adopt a catch-all strategy and place pragmatism before principle, and integrative parties, which are pro­active rather than reactive, and attempt to mobilize, educate and inspire the masses, instead of merely responding to their concerns. Occasionally, mass parties may exhibit mobilizing or integrative tendencies, as "in the case of the UK Conservatives under Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s.

Finally, parties can be classified as constitu­tional parties when they operate within a framework of constraints imposed by the existence of other parties, the rules of electoral com­petition and, crucially, a distinction between the party in power and state institutions. Revolutionary parties, by con­trast, adopt an anti-system or anti-constitutional stance, and when such parties win power they invariably become 'ruling' or regime parties, suppressing rival parties and establishing a permanent rela­tionship with the state machinery.

Political parties can be distinguished on the basis of their own structural form, ideological orientation leadership pattern, and operational style.

The political parties can be identified on the basis of six different cri­teria:

(1) on the basis of interest, they can be classified as religious (e.g., Akali Party), cultural (e.g., Dalit, BJP) etc., while on the basis of ideology, they can be described as communist, socialist etc.;

(2) on the basis of the type of membership, they can be viewed as mass-based (open to every in­dividual) and cadre-based (open to those who believe in specific ideology);

(3) on the basis of the style of operation, they can be described as open (with open forum of discussion) and latent (where decision-making is re­stricted to elite);

(4) on the basis of the recruitment of the activists, these can be classified as elective and cooperative;

(5) on the basis of the territo­rial and functional structuring, the two types of parties can be unitary (where power is concentrated in single source) and federal (where power is distributed; and

(6) on the basis of scope of activities the parties may have limited or unlimited scope.

Functions Of Political Parties

• The political party is the major organizing principle of modern politics. Political parties are a vital link between the state and civil society, carrying out major functions such as representation, the formation and recruitment of political elites, the articulation and aggregation of interests and the organization of government. In one-party systems they effectively substitute themselves for the government, creating a fused party-state apparatus. In two-party systems the larger of the major parties typically wields government power, while the other major party constitutes the opposition and operates as a 'government in waiting'.
• Political parties, when out of power, exercise restraint over the ruling party by opposing and criticizing its policies as and when such policies are found to be detrimental to national interest. Political parties help in the operation of checks and balances in a democracy.  In a democracy the political parties provide a healthy outlet to the people to speak out their viewpoints. Thus people give voice to their attitudes through favouring the party, which they think best reflects their attitudes and interests. For example, while the workers favour Communist or left parties, middle and upper class people favour Conservative parties. This however, does not mean that the political parties are always fighting to grab political power.The opposition while adopting the tactics of obstructions and criticism of the actions of the ruling party will also have to co-operate with it on various national issues.
• Another important function of a political party is to assume responsibility for their policies and actions. That is why they are fit to form government in the country.
• Political parties act as agents of mass education in political activity. Political parties act as mediators between government and the people and educate the masses about the implications of novel government policies. They also perform the function of organizing public opinion. Political parties share the task of socializing the individual through education in political matters. For many individuals, the party becomes a point of reference from which to make judgments on a confusing array of candidates and issues.
• Various political parties act as counter-balancing forces upon each. They provide different sets of policies and programme from which the people can choose as the ideal alternative according to their needs.
• Political Parties also Act as Uniting Force :  To win the support of the largest number of voters possible, the parties cannot afford to embrace extremist positions. Consequently, they adopt rather moderate, middle-of-the-road positions and are able to draw together a heterogeneous group.In a totalitarian system such as in U.S.S.R. the party is used as a means of political propaganda about governmental policies and as agents of political indoctrination. This may be seen in China as well.

Criticisms of political parties have either stemmed from the earlier fear that parties would promote conflict and destroy the underlying unity of society, and make the politics of individual con­science impossible, or that they are inherently elitist and bureau­cratic bodies. The latter view was most famously articulated by Robert Michels in the form of the 'iron law of oligar­chy'. Some modern parties, notably Green parties, style themselves as 'anti-party parties', in that they set out to subvert traditional party politics by rejecting parliamentary compromise and emphasizing popular mobilization. Amongst the strongest supporters of the political party has been Lenin, who advocated the construction of a tightly knit revolutionary party, organized them the basis of democratic centralism, to serve as the 'vanguard of the working class'.

Nevertheless, the late twentieth century pro­vided evidence of a so-called 'crisis of party politics', reflected in a seemingly general decline in party membership and partisanship, and in the contrasting growth of single-issue protest groups and rise of new social movements. This has been explained on the basis that, as bureaucratized political machines, parties are unable to respond to the" growing appetite for popular participation and acti­vism; that their image as instruments of government means that they are inevitably associated with power, ambition and corrup­tion; and that, given the growing complexity of modern societies and the decline of class and other traditional social identities, the social forces that once gave rise to parties have now weakened. Such factors are nevertheless more likely to lead to a transformation in the role of political parties and in the style of party politics, than to make -them redundant.

Pressure groups

Pressure groups are a new kind of organization that have come into existence in the 20th century. The genesis of these groups lies in the complexity of modern society. Whenever any legislation is undertaken by the legislative body, it has far too many sections which impinge on far too many interests of groups in society. Pressure groups representing various interests or groups come into existence. They exist outside the legislative bodies. They become active every time affairs of their own group of interest come before the legislature.

Therefore, A pressure group is an organized association which aims to influence the policies or actions of the government.

Sociologists have argued that modern man is an “Organization Man”, i.e., he exists as an entity in society only because of his association with some organization or the other. In other words the sociology of modern times is more a sociology or groups of people in the form of organizations rather than people as individuals. Furthermore, this particular development in modern life calls for a reinterpretation of the organization of power and authority in modern times. Long back power and authority has ceased to be monolithic in nature. Now with the growing importance of organization it is tending to be pluralistic in nature.

A pressure group can be understood as an association of persons with a common economic interest who try to influence governmental decisions. These pressure groups also known as interest groups pursue their political goals through lobbying- the process by which individuals and groups communicate with public officials in order to influence decisions of government.They also distribute persuasive literature and launch public campaigns to build grass -root support for their political objectives.   “A pressure group refers to an interest group which tries to safe-guard and promotes the interests of its members”

According to Functionalists such groups play a constructive role in decision-making.  They prepare the ground for the orderly political participation.

Conflict theorists on the other hand argue that although a few organizations work on behalf of the poor and disadvantaged most of the pressure groups represent the vested interests of the business leaders, the lobbies of multinational companies, rich professionals and political leaders. They further assert that these powerful lobbies discourage political participation by the individual citizens.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PRESSURE GROUPS

Based on Certain Interests

• Each pressure group organises itself keeping in view certain interests and thus tries to adopt the structure of power in the political systems. In every government and political party there are clashing interest groups. These groups try to dominate the political structure and to see that groups whose interests clash with theirs are suppressed

Use of Modern as well as Traditional Means

• Pressure groups is that they try to follow modern means of exerting pressure, without fully giving up the traditional or old ways of operation. They adopt techniques like financing of political parties, sponsoring their close candidates at the time of elections and keeping the bureaucracy also satisfied. Their traditional means include exploitation of caste, creed and religious feelings to promote their interests.

Resulting Out of Increasing Pressure and Demands on Resources

• Pressure groups help in getting the allocated resources of the government to the disadvantageous groups of society

Alternative to Inadequacies of Political Parties

• Pressure group help in fulfilling the socio-economic gaps left by the political parties.

Methods

These pressure groups influence public policy through donations, substantial contributions to various public funds, gifts to various political parties, distribution of remunerative jobs in industrial firms and educational institutions and construction of temples and Dharamshalas etc. The largest business organisations is the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry, which represents forty thousand firms and has a very effective office at New Delhi-which works as a sort of lobbying agency. As those business houses also control the press they are able to exercise deep influence on public opinion. The business organisations exert influence and pressure in numerous ways. They take part in the consultative bodies and occasionally lobby MPs; they try to influence the Planning Commission and other economic Ministries regarding the priorities.  While contacting the decision-making authorities and making them change an aspect of a policy in their own interest, they may meet the concerned person in an informal manner.

Difference Between Political Parties And Pressure Groups

A pressure group is a non-political organisation, while the political parties are political organisation.The objective of pressure groups is very limited viz.; to protect the interests of a particular group or section and its organisation is very simple. The political parties not only possess an elaborate organisation but their objectives are also quite general. The pressure groups do not directly participate in elections, while the political parties take an active part in the elections with a view to secure majority.Pressure groups work only for the promotion and protection of the interests of their members. The political parties on the other hand aim at capturing government machinery with a view to implement their policies. The pressure groups operate outside the legislative bodies. The political parties work both outside and within the legislatures.

Some of the pressure groups function within the political parties in the form of representing a particular view-point. Here the members of such groups do not receive any kind of remuneration from the people whom they are expected to help they are primary interested in gaining control of the party machinery. And there by they hope to wield power in the eventuality of the party winning elections.

Types Of Pressure Groups

Pressure groups appear in a variety of shapes and sizes. The two most common classifications of pressure groups are between sec­tional and promotional groups, and between 'insider' and 'outsider' groups. Sectional groups (sometimes called protective, functional or interest groups) exist to advance or protect the interests of their members. The 'sectional' character of such groups derives from the fact that they represent a section of society: work­ers, employers, consumers, an ethnic or religious group, and so on. In the USA, sectional groups are often classified as 'private interest groups', to stress that their principal concern is the betterment and well-being of their members, not of society in general. Promotional groups (sometimes termed cause or attitude groups) are set up to advance shared values, ideals and principles. In the USA, promo­tional groups are dubbed 'public interest groups', to emphasize that they promote collective, rather than selective benefits; they aim to help groups other than their own members. Nevertheless, many pressure groups straddle the sectional/promotional divide, in that they both represent their members' interests and are con­cerned with ideals and broader causes. Trade unions, for instance, often address the issue of social *justice as well as matters such as wages, conditions and job security.

Alternatively, pressure groups can be classified on the basis of their relationship to government. Insider groups enjoy privileged and usually institutionalized access to government through routine con­sultation and representation on government bodies. Such groups either tend to represent key economic interests or to possess specialist knowledge and information necessary to government in the process of policy formulation. Outsider groups, on the other hand, are either not consulted by government or consulted only irregularly and not usually at a senior level. Lacking formal access to government, these groups are forced to 'go public' in the hope of exercising indirect influence on the policy process via media and public campaigns. On the basis of interst thee can be of following types ,

Institutional Interest Groups

• These groups are formally organised which consist of professionally employed persons.
•  They are a part of government machinery and try to exert their influence.
• These groups include political parties, legislatures, armies, bureaucracies and churches.

Associational Interest Groups

• These are organised specialised groups formed for interest articulation, but to pursue limited goals.
• These include trade unions, organisations of businessmen and industrialists and civic groups.
• Some examples of Associational Interest Groups in India are Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Indian Chambers of Commerce, Trade Unions such as AITUC (All India Trade Union Congress).

Anomic Interest Groups

• These are the groups that have analogy with individual self-representation. In such type of groups, perpetual infiltrations such as riots, demonstrations are observed.
• These groups are found in the shape of movement demonstrations and processions, signature campaigns, street corner meetings, etc.
• Their activities may either be constitutional or unconstitutional.

Non-Associational Interest Groups

• These are the kinship and lineage groups and ethnic, regional, status and class groups that articulate interests on the basis of individuals, family and religious heads.
• These groups have informal structure.
• These include caste groups, language groups, etc.

NATURE OF PRESSURE GROUPS IN INDIA

The Business Groups

• They are independent of the political parties that exist and they have enough resources with which they can safeguard their interests.
• The important business groups include the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII),Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and lndustry (FICCI) and Associated Chamber of Commerce.

The Business Groups

• They exert varied kinds of pressures, they try to influence planning, licensing bodies and economic ministries. Some businesspersons are always there in different legislatures at the Central as well as State level.

Trade Unions

• Under communist influence, the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was established in 1920s.
• The emergence of the communist movement also played an important role in the growth of trade unions in India
• In 1948, the Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC) was established.
• Trade Unions in India are closely affiliated with the political parties; many national political parties have got their own federations of trade unions
• No amount of independence from political parties exists in trade unions
• They seem to have been able to exert significant pressure at the policy formulation level and their strength is well recognised by political parties and government.

Peasants Organisations

• The rise of peasants groups in India has been mainly due to abolition of Zamindari System, implementation of Panchayati Raj, land reform measures, GreenRevolution Movement.
• In 1936, the All India Kisan Sabha was established
• All India Kisan Associations like All India Kisan Congress, All India Kisan Kamgar Sammelan, Akhil Bharatiya Kisan Sangh, peasant groups have been mainly organised on territorial basis. Their demands
• Their demands relate to procurement prices of agricultural products, fertilizer subsidy, tenancy rights, electricity charges, etc.
• The Bharatiya Kisan Party (BKP) in Western U.P. is considered the most significant pressure group.
• The interplay of language, caste factor, weak financial positions, etc. have been greatly responsible for non-emergence of national level pressure groups.

Students Organisations

• The student organisations in India have also acted as pressure groups both prior to Independence and after Independence.
• The All Bengal Students Association was formed in 1928.
• The All India Students Federation (AISF) was established in 1936.
• The All India Students Congress and later on the National Students Union of India (NSUI) are affiliated to the Congress Party.
• The All India Students Federation and Students Federation of India (SFI), are controlled by Communist Party of India.
• The Radical Students Union, Democratic Students Union, Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP) etc. are all affiliated to different political parties.

Community Associations

• These community groups are organised on the basis of caste, class and religion.
•  Some examples of caste organisations are Scheduled Caste Federation, Backward Caste Federation, etc.
•  Amongst other organisations there ire some like Vishwa Hindu Parishad, Northern and Southern India Christian Conference, etc. which represent interests that are supposed to safeguard their respective religions.