Recombinant DNA has been used to combat one of the greatest problems in plant food production: the destruction of crops by plant viruses. For example, by transferring the protein-coat gene of the zucchini yellow mosaic virus to squash plants that had previously sustained great damage from the virus, scientists were able to create transgenic squash plants with immunity to this virus.

Scientists also have developed transgenic potato and strawberry plants that are frost-resistant, as well as transgenic tomato plants containing a gene that slows the ripening process of the fruit, which retards spoilage once the tomatoes are off the plant.

Similarly, in animal food production, the growth hormone gene of rainbow trout has been transferred directly into carp eggs. The resultant transgenic carp produce both carp and rainbow trout growth hormones and grow to be one-third larger than normal carp.

Recombinant DNA also has been used to clone large quantities of the gene responsible for the cattle growth hormone bovine somatotropin (BST) in Escherichia coli, a bacterium. The hormone is then extracted from the bacterium, purified, and injected into dairy cows, increasing their milk production by as much as 40 percent.

Genetically Modified (GM) food

Genetically modified (GM) food, as the term implies, stands for food that has its genetic make-up altered display certain characteristics. The food, generally a crop, contains one or more genes, which have been artificially inserted into the cell instead of acquiring them through natural selection.

Scientists refer to genetically modified strains as transgenics to indicate the presence of foreign genetic material (transgene). Technically, transgenics is a more accurate term for GM foods as even natural food have been genetically modified through selection and controlled breeding.

How is GM food made?

The organism with the desired trait is selected and the genes responsible for the trait are identified and cloned. Once it is cloned, it must be modified by genetic engineers so that it expresses the desired trait in a particularly in the plant. The new gene is produced into the plant cells’ nucleus and is incorporated into the plant’s own genetic material. Whole plants are obtained from the engineered tissue by growing the cells under controlled environment. This process is known as tissue culture.

Advantages

• One is that genetic engineering can make plants stronger. Scientists have taken the genes from a bacterium that naturally kills insects and added them into corn plants. When a pest tries to eat the corn, it dies and the plant is out of danger.
• Many biotech crops are cheaper to grow, keeping prices down. A genetically engineered hormone given to cows makes, them produce more milk. Another gene given to fish makes them grow faster.
• Genetic engineering also can give food more of the qualities that consumers want, such as tomatoes that have more nutrition.. Eventually, it may be possible to produce foods that carry vaccines and other medicines. Instead of getting a shot or taking a pill, you could just eat a banana or some rice.

Apprehensions

• Why do some people think there shouldn’t be genetically engineered foods. The technology is still quite new, and some people worry that it hasn’t been properly tested.
• These critics of biotech food point out that it’s hard to keep genetically modified food from mixing with regular food. A type of genetically modified corn called Star-Link was approved to be fed to animals, but not people. But that corn has been found in taco shells and other corn products that humans eat.
• Some environmentalists also worry that genetically engineered fish and insects now being developed might escape and mate with regular animals, causing problems.
• These techniques facilitate nature. In contrast, GE involves transfer of genes across species, genetic and even phyletic barriers. That is, transfers are made across different animals and plants, animals to plants, microbes to higher organisms etc.
• We must also recognize that a gene’s expression is predictable, stable and reproducible only in its own evolved genomic environment, as is the case in nature and even conventional breeding. In r-DNA technology, however, the gene insertion is both random and in an alien neighbourhood, which produces a totally unpredictable disturbance in host genetic function as well as in that of the introduced gene.
• What is more, to mark distinctly the cells where the transgene has been integrated, genetic engineers use “markers”. These markers are usually antibiotic-resistant genes. This creates the danger of spread of antibiotic resistance in all organisms that come into contact with the transgene.
• Further to switch on the transgene, genetic engineers use “promoters”. These promoters are DNA sequences, often derived from disease-causing viruses. A common example of this is 35SCaMV (from Cauliflower Mosaic Virus), which resembles the HIV and Hepatitis B viruses. Thus, each element of the r-DNA technology - carriers, markers and promoters - has potentially lethal consequences for the health of all living organisms.
• Possibilities of creation of “superweeds” by transfer of herbicide resistance genes from transgenic crops have been reported both by J. Kling in Science (1996) and J. Bergelsen and his co-authors in Nature (1998).
• One of the first reported cases of disastrous unpredictable consequences of r-DNA technology was the death of 37 people and permanent disability of 1,500 others in the U.S. in 1989 after they consumed genetically engineered (GE) Tryptophan, a nutritional supplement.
• Terminator gene in GM crops – Gene which does not allow the seed to germinate again in the next crop.

Bt crops

Crops that are genetically engineered to carry a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). The bacterium produces proteins that are toxic to some pests but non-toxic to humans and other mammals. Crops containing the Bt gene are able to produce this toxin, thereby providing protection for the plant. Bt corn and Bt cotton are examples of commercially available Bt crops.

Bt Crops in India:

India is yet to approve commercial cultivation of a GM food crop. The only genetically modified cash crop under commercial cultivation in India is cotton.

1) Bt Cotton: It is an insect-resistant transgenic crop designed to combat the bollworm. It was created by genetically altering the cotton genome to express a microbial protein from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. The transgene inserted into the plant's genome produces toxin crystals that the plant would not normally produce. When it is ingested by a certain population of organisms, these crystals dissolve the gut lining, leading to the organism's death.

2) Bt Brinjal: The GEAC  in 2007, recommended the commercial release of Bt Brinjal, which was developed by Mahyco (Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Company) in collaboration with the Dharward University of Agricultural sciences and the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. But the initiative was blocked in 2010.

3) GM-Mustard: Dhara Mustard Hybrid-11 or DMH-11 is a genetically modified variety of mustard developed by the Delhi University’s Centre for Genetic Manipulation of Crop Plants. The researchers at Delhi University have created hybridised mustard DMH-11 using “barnase / barstar” technology for genetic modification. It is Herbicide Tolerant (HT) crop. If approved by the Centre, this will be the second GM crop, after Bt Cotton, and the first transgenic food crop to be allowed for cultivation in the country.

Biofertilisers

'biofertilizer' is a substance which contains living microorganisms which, when applied to seed, plant surfaces, or soil, colonizes the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant.

The Biofertilisers of different types are being developed through R & D efforts and evaluated in experimental field demonstrations. Yield increase ranging from 3% to 14% were obtained in rice crops following the application of blue green algae (BGA) and 35 to 65 tonnes of Azolla were produced. New technology packages for the high quality algal Biofertilisers have been developed and distributed to the farmers for evaluation.

After optimizing the parameters in the fermentor based production of Shizobium innoculo-s, 534 experimental, field demonstrations were carried out covering different crops. New formulations with longer shelf life have been developed.

The overall objectives of biofertillsers program are: Technology. Development based on the R & D efforts for Blue Green Algae (including Azolla) and Rhizobium, limited scale experimental trials and field demonstrations in the farmer’s fields in close collaboration with the state Agricultural Dept, State Agricultural Univ, Min. of Agriculture, ICAR for validation of the technologies, development of protocols for the quality assurance through R & D, and training of man power and awarness building programs.

Biological Pest control

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF PESTS in agriculture is a method of controlling pests (including insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) that relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms.

The biological pest control project has made good progress and an area of 18,000 ha has been covered by biocontrol agents produced by the two pilot plant units set up at Madurai and Coimbatore Rs. 9 lakhs were realized as sale proceeds.

The pests that were controlled in the farmers field locations include Heliothis armigera, Spodoptera litura, Chilo infuscatellus, Earlas, Pectinophora, Aphis and Bemisia. Other pethogens controlled were Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium and sclerotinia.

A target of 11,700 ha has been achieved in the fields of cotton, chickpea, tobacco, sugarcane, groundunt, sunflower, black gram, greengram, pigeonpea, other pulses, seasmum and cauliflower.

A repository for cultures has been established at TN Agricultural University. The Integrated Pest Management kits for the control of tobacco pests have been distributed to the farmers in Andhra Pradesh.

AGRICULTURAL BIOSECURITY AUTHORITY [1]

Background

The inflow of pests/diseases of plants and animals into countries through imports is considered one of the biggest threats to diversity, leading to huge economic losses.

Weed Parthenium hysterophorous, called Gajar/Congress Ghas is a highly prevalent invasive species in India. This species is originally a native to the American Tropics and it was introduced in India by the contaminated PL-480 wheat, which used to come to us from USA as food support once upon a time in 1950s and 1960s.

Similar weeds are Phalaris minor (guli danda) and Lanatana camara have got established in the country via the same ways.

On March 11, 2013, the Agricultural Biosecurity Bill, 2013 has been introduced in Lok Sabha. The Agricultural Biosecurity Bill aims bring all aspects of plant, animal and marine protection and quarantine under a high powered statutory body

Proposed Agricultural Biosecurity Authority of India

• To be established via the proposed act at Faridabad.
• To be headed by a Director General, appointed by the central government.
• Comprises experts in plant and animal pests and diseases, and representatives of various ministries and organisations.

Objectives of the Bill

• A better regime of quarantining and controlling pests and even "exotic species".
• To cover four sectors of agricultural insecurity viz. plant health, animal health, living aquatic resources (like fisheries) and agriculturally important micro-organisms.

Need of the authority

There is an increased risk of introduction of exotic pests and weeds in the country with the potential to cause serious economic losses. Advances in genetic engineering leading to the introduction and release of living modified organisms or their products (e.g. genetically modified organisms) require proper risk assessment and management. Climate change has the potential to alter the habitat of known pests and even cause introduction of new pests. We have to contend with the ever increasing threat of bio-terrorism. The emergence and spread of transboundary diseases such as the avian influenza and the Ug-99 wheat stem rust fungus pose new threats to human, animal and plant safety.

Functions of the authority

• Regulation of the import and export of plants, animals and related products
• Prevention of the introduction of quarantine pests from outside India
• Implementation of the post-entry quarantine measures.

Powers of the authority

• It can issue directions to importers and exporters of such products for the discharge of its functions.:
• No person shall import any plant, animal, and plant or animal products in contravention of notifications or guidelines issued by the Authority.
• Exceptions shall be provided to those imports that are issued permits by the Authority, and imports with sanitary or phytosanitary (relating to the health of plants) certificates issued by the respective authority in the country of origin and the country of re-export.
• Exports of the above products shall not be allowed except in cases where sanitary or phytosanitary certificates have been issued by an officer of the authority.
• The Customs Act, 1962 or other laws in force, that prohibit the import of certain customs and goods shall also apply to those pests, plants and animals, which require permits or are prohibited by the Authority.
• Control of quarantine pest No person shall possess, move, grow, raise, culture, breed or produce any plant, animal and related products if he has reason to believe that such a product is or may be carrying a quarantine pest.
• It can also notify an area to be a controlled area if it suspects or determines that the area is infested or infected with a quarantine pest.

Agricultural Biosecurity Fund

The bill proposes to establish a Agricultural Biosecurity Fund, in which the money obtained by the authority as for purposes specified in the Act will be credited and will be utilized there-from. The authority can also borrow funds from any source through the issue of bonds and debentures to discharge its functions. However, to raise such funds, the authority needs prior consent of the central government.

Biotechnology Ignition Grant (BIG)

The main aim of BIG Scheme is:

a.   To establish and validate proof of concept

b.    To enable creation of spin-offs.

Eligibility

i.    Biotechnology start-ups / entrepreneurs; Incubatee; Students, Academician and Scientists with industry research experience and/or Researcher from Academia (Research Institute/University/Public and Private funded, (Not for profit Organization), with an exciting idea which may be in the nascent and planning stage are eligible to apply.

 ii.  The Applicant must be either an Incubate located in a incubator or have a registered company with a functional R&D laboratory

Start-up Company: Only Indian companies incorporated in the last 5 years with a functional laboratory will be eligible. 51% shares of the company have to be held by Indian/NRI.

The Animal Biotechnology Task Force has identified various thrust areas namely embryo transfer and related technique, animal nutrition and feed, animal waste and product utilization, rumen microbiology, vaccine and diagnostics and genetic resources. The programs have been categorized under three main heads i.e. embryo transfer, animal health and animal nutrition.

Embryo transfer

The major stress is on improvement of technique for super ovulation, embryo recovery, estrus synchronization, non-hormonal methods for embryo recovery, micro-manipulation and splitting of embryos, cloning and sexing of embryos, development of transgenics.

The male buffaloes generated through IVF technology have come into production and their semen has been tested for quality and preserved for further use. The PCR based Y-chromosome specific probe developed at NII, New Delhi, for sex determination of cows at the embryonic stage has been field-tested. Other programs related to ETT for animal species like goat and camel has also been initiated.

Animal Health

Several programs have been funded for development of diagnostic and vaccine for the major diseases of livestock including poultry. Prototype ELISA kits for detection of antibodies have been developed for new castle disease virus of poultry and infections bovine rhinotricheitis in cattle. Programs are underway to develop diagnostics and vaccines for Johne’s disease in goat, blue tongue, duck plague, rinderpest, leptospirosis etc.

Animal Nutrition

Realizing the fact that about 70 percent of the production is affected by the nutritional status of the animal, various programs are implemented for maximum utilization of the available animal feed resources. These projects aim to enhance the nutritional value by supplementing with microbes, removing toxic material and manipulating the rumen microbes through non-genetic and genetic manipulation.

A program is underway to develop a package for improving nutrition of poultry. The supplementation commercial feed with the degraded product resulted in increase body weight and better FCR in broilers.

Leatherbiotechnology

The country’s production of leather and leather goods is low compared to the livestock resources. The production can be increased, by improving the industry with modern biotechnological tools for skin cleaning; processing, dyeing etc. with these objectives, the DBT has sanctioned three projects to CLRI, Madras in Priority areas of

i)    Skin / hide processing through enzymatic method.

ii)  Utilization of byproducts from tannery, and

iii) Waste management by microbial degradation of solid-liquid waste from tannery.

These managements are being dovetailed into the National Technology Mission on Leather.

The collagen rich material like tendons and serosa layers from the small intestine have been used to extract the collagen and convert them into sheet. The sterilized sheet have been tested for wound healing applications and found very effective in healing. The centre has also developed a composite membrane, which is being tested for biomedical application.