The 14th century onwards,significant changes occurred in Europe .after the feudal crisis  agricultural became less profitable as compared to gains in trade and commerce .Italy the birth place of renaissance ,had been prospering since the 11th to 12th  century by supplying various artisanal goods to Europe from east .other European countries soon became eager to break the Italian monopoly over trade and began their search for new routes to India and the spice Islands in Indonesia ( east Indies).

Italian and Arab monopoly over old trade routes ,the rise of nation –states under strong monarchs ,renaissance and spirit of “God ,Glory and Gold” were  among the several factors that contributed in the discovery of new routes and lands .

The Portuguese were the first ones to arrive ,followed by Dutch ,The English ,The Danes  and The French.

The Portuguese

The Portuguese were the first ones to arrive on  Indian scene .the reason for arrival of Portuguese in India were both economic as well as religious .they had come to seek spices especially pepper as well as to destroy the monopoly of Arabs and Italians over trade with the east.they also wished to spread Christianity in Asia and Africa and restrict the increasing influence of Arabs and Turks.

Early Efforts

• Prince Henry of Portugal ,nicknamed the navigator had become obsessed with idea of finding a sea route to India .He was keen to circumvent the muslim dominated route of Red sea .
• However ,Prince Henry died before his dream could be fulfilled.
• In 1487 Bartholomew Diaz reached the southernmost trip of Africa ( which he named cape of storms) and became the first known European to reach the Indian ocean from Atlantic.The Portuguese later renamed the cape as ‘Cape of Good Hope’ as it represented the opening of a new route to the east.

Vasco da Gama ( 1498)

• Piloted by a Gujrati named Abdul Majid ,Vasco da Gama reached India ( Calicut)  via cape of Good hope in 1498.He thus discovered a new sea route from Europe to India and became the first European to reach India by sea .this opened a new chapter in the history of india’s trade relations with Europe .Vasco-da –Gama returned with a cargo which sold for 60 times the cost of his voyage.

Pedro Alvarez Cabral(1500):

• In 1500 Pedro Alvarez cabral sailed to India with the aim of making teaty with Zamorin of Calicut and setting up a Portuguese factory.However cabral ran into a conflict with local Arab merchants who then attacked Portuguese killing more than 50 portuguese ,outraged  Cabral captured ten Arab merchants ships and massacred nearly 600 Arabs.
• In 1503 the first Portuguese factory was set up at Cochin ( Kochi)
• In 1505 the second factory was set up at Cannanore( Kannur).
• Soon Calicut ,Cochin ,Cannanore and Quilon ( Kollam) became important trading centres of the Portuguese .The Portuguese trading points of factories  on land were called feitorias.the early spice trade comprised of mainly pepper and Cinnamon.

Portuguese Governors

Francisco De Almeida( 1505-09)

• Almeida was appointed as the first Portuguese viceroy of India for a term of three years and sent with sufficient armed ships to protect Portuguese interests.
• He adopted “Blue water policy” aimed at establishing naval supremacy of the Portuguese in the Indian ocean ,rather than over land .He is credited with the construction of fort Anjediva on Anjediva island lying at the border of muslim Bijapur and Hindu Vijaynagar States.

Alfonso-De –Albuquerque ( 1509-1515)

• He was the greatest Portuguese Viceroy in India and is called as the real founder of Portuguese power in India .
• In 1509 ,Albuqurque Conquered Diu and in 1510 he conquered Goa from the sultan of Bijapur.
• In Bengal ,Hooghly and Balasore became the Portuguese trading centres.
• He encouraged his country men to marry Indian Women and propagate Christianity .He also abolished Sati in regions under his control.

Nino de Cunha( 1529—38)

• In 1530 ,He transferred the Government head office from cochin to Goa ,thus making Goa the official capital of the Portuguese in India.
• The Dutch( Netherland /Holland)
• The Dutch came to India for trade .they were innovative people in Business as well as in shipping techniques they had designed fluitship which was much lighter and required a smaller crew thus reducing its operating costs.
• Cornellius de Houtman was the first Dutch traveller to reach India in 1596.

Dutch East India Company(1602)

• Dutch East India Company was formed and Dutch parliament gave it a charter empowering it to make war and peace with other states ,acquire territories and build fortresses.But the main interest of the Dutch was in the Indonesian archipelago,However they discovered that Indian trade was necessary to carry out trade with south –west Asia.

Dutch factories

• In 1606 first Dutch factory was established at masulipatnam in Andhra,the second factory was set up at pettopoli( Nizampatnam).
• In 1610 the Dutch signed a treaty with the king of Chandragiri and established there headquarters at pulicat .here they minted their gold coins called pagodas.

Decline of Dutch

• In 1623 Amboyna massacre took place in Indonesia where the Dutch killed 10 Englishmen and 9 Japanese ,After this massacre ,the Dutch Began to restrict to restrict themselves to Malay Archipelago and English to India .
• In 1759 The Dutch were defeated by the English in the decisive battle of Bedara ( Bengal),Ending the Dutch power In India.

East India company

• Concerned that the English were falling behind to the Dutch on these new trading routes, on the 31st December 1600 Queen Elizabeth I granted over 200 English merchants the right to trade in the East Indies. One of these groups of merchants called themselves Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies, later to become simply The East India Company.
• Initial voyages of the company were made to the spice islands in Indonesia .soon English discovered the importance of Indian goods especially textiles as a barter commodity for spice trade .thus in 1608 surat in Gujrat was established as the trade transit point and company ships were docked there.The company now planned to open a factory at surat in Gujrat and captain Hawkins was sent—
• Captain Hawkins(1608)
• In 1608 Captain William Hawkins was sent as a representative of English Company to the court of Jahangir to obtain permission to open a factory at Surat.Hawkins was the First Englishmen to set foot on Indian soil,He could speak Turkish language and came in a ship named Hector .He arrived at surat and from there he went to the court of Jahangirat Agra in 1609.

Early Factories

• In 1611 ,the English opened their trading post in the south of Masulipatnam ( Machilipatnam).
• In 1611 itself ,English defeated the Portuguese in the Battle of Swally hole near surat ,this convinced Jahangir and english were allowed to set up a factory at Surat in 1613.
• In 1615 Sir Thomas Roe was sent by King James I as an ambassador to the court of Jahangir .Roe was successful in Obtaining royal farman permitting British to trade and establish factories in all parts of Mughal empire.
• In 1625 English tried to fortify surat but Mughals frustrated the attempt and imprisoned the English .The English then decided to shift their focus to south India to avoid direct confrontationwith the mughals .

• In 1668, the English East India Company acquired Bombay from Charles II on lease and it was made headquarter in 1687
• In 1690, Job Charnock established a factory at Sutanati and the zamindari of the three villages of Sutanati, Kalikata and Gobindpur was acquired by the British (1698).
• These three villages later grew into the city of Calcutta.
• The factory at Sutanati was fortified in 1696 and this new fortified settlement was named Fort William in 1700.
• In 1694, the British parliament passed a resolution giving equal rights to all Englishmen to trade in the East.
• A new rival company, known as ‘the English company of Merchants Trading to the East Indies’ was formed (1698).
• The English company’s position was improved by the ‘Golden Farman’ issued to them by the Sultan of Golconda in 1632.
• On a payment of 500 pagodas a year, they earned the privilege of trading freely in the ports of Golconda.
• Francis Day in 1639 received from the ruler of Chandragiri permission to build a fortified factory at Madras which later became the Fort St. George and replaced Masulipatnam as the headquarters of the English settlements in south India.

Farrukhsiyar’s Farmans

• In 1717, the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar’s farmans, called Magna Carta of the East India Company, gave significant privileges to the Company in Bengal, Gujarat and Hyderabad.

Merger of companies

• The final amalgamation of the company came in 1708 under the title of ‘The united company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies’.
• This new company continued its existence till 1858.

French

• The French East India Company was formed by minister Colbert under state patronage in 1664.
• The first French factory was established at Surat by Francois Caron in 1668.
• A factory at Masulipatam was set up in 1669.
• Mercara, a Persian who accompanied Caron, founded another French factory in Masulipatnam in 1669 after obtaining a patent from the Sultan of Golconda.
• In 1673 the French obtained permission from Shaista Khan, the Mughal subahdar of Bengal, to establish a township at Chandernagore near Calcutta.
• In 1673, Sher Khan Lodi, the governor of Valikondapuram (under the Bijapur Sultan), granted Francois Martin, the director of the Masulipatnam factory, a site for a settlement.
• Pondicherry was founded in 1674.
• The French company established its factories in other parts of India also, particularly in the coastal regions.
• Important trading centres: Mahe, Karaikal, Balasore and Qasim Bazar

Early Setbacks

• Dutch, by their alliance with the English, captured Pondicherry in 1693, though restored by Treaty of Ryswick (1697).
• when the War of Spanish Succession broke out in Europe, they had to abandon their factories at Surat and Masulipatnam in the early 18th century.
• The French in India had another setback when Francois Martin died on December 31, 1706.?
• The French power in India was revived under Lenoir and Dumas (governors) between 1720 and 1742.
• They occupied Mahe in the Malabar, Yanam in Coromandal and Karaikal in Tamil Nadu (1739).
• The  arrival of Dupleix as French governor in India in 1742 saw the beginning of Anglo-French conflict (Carnatic Wars) resulting in their final defeat in India.

The Carnatic Wars

First Carnatic War (1740-48)

• The First Carnatic War was an extension of the Anglo-French War in Europe which was caused by the Austrian War of Succession.
• The First Carnatic War is remembered for the Battle of St. Thome (in Madras) fought between the French forces and the forces of Anwar-ud-din, the Nawab of Carnatic, to whom the English appealed for help
• causes
• Although France did not favour an extension of hostilities to India, the English navy under Commodore Curtis Bennett seized some French ships to provoke France.
• The French Governor General, Dupleix, appealed for protection from Anwar-ud-Din, the Nawab of Carnatic.
• France retaliated by seizing Madras in 1746 with the help of the fleet from Mauritius, the Isle of France, under Admiral La Bourdonnais, the French governor of Mauritius.
• Results
• A small French army under Captain Paradise defeated the strong Indian army under Mahfuz Khan at St.Thome on the banks of the River Adyar.
• The First Carnatic War ended in 1748 when the Treaty of Aix-La Chapelle was signed bringing the Austrian War of Succession to a
• conclusion.
• Under the terms of this treaty, Madras was handed back to the English, and the French, in turn, got their territories in North America.

Second Carnatic War (1749-54)

• The background for the Second Carnatic War was provided by the Anglo-French rivalry in India.
• In 1748 Nizam-ul-Mulk, the Mughal governor of the Deccan and semi-independent Nawab of Hyderabad died.
• The succession to his position was contested, and the British and French were soon dragged into the fighting between the candidates.
• causes
• The opportunity was provided by the death of Nizam-ul-Mulk, and the release of Chanda Sahib, the son-in-law of Dost Ali, the Nawab of Carnatic, by the Marathas in the same year.
• In Hyderabad, the accession of Nasir Jang, the son of the Nizam, to the throne of Hyderabad was opposed by Muzaffar Jang, the grandson of the Nawab, who laid claim to the throne saying that the Mughal Emperor had appointed him as the governor of Hyderabad.
• In Carnatic there were two candidates for the Nawabship of the Carnatic. Appointment of Anwar-ud-Din was resented by Chanda Sahib.
• The French supported the claims of Muzaffar Jang and Chanda Sahib in the Deccan and Carnatic, respectively, while the English sided with Nasir Jang and Anwar-ud-din.

• The combined armies of Muzaffar Jang, Chanda Sahib and the French defeated and killed Anwar- ud-din at the Battle of Ambur (near Vellore) in 1749.
• Muzaffar Jang was installed as the Nizam of Hyderabad and the subahdar of Deccan, and Dupleix was appointed governor of all the Mughal territories to the south of the River Krishna.
• Territories near Pondicherry and also some areas on the Orissa Coast (including Masulipatnam) were ceded to the French.
• However, Muzaffar Jung was killed a couple of months later and the French installed Muzaffar’s uncle Salabat Jung as the new Nizam.
• Having failed to provide effective assistance to Muhammad Ali at Trichinopoly, Robert Clive (first British administrator of the Bengal Presidency), put forward the proposal for a diversionary attack on the Governor Saunders of Madras.
• He suggested a sudden raid on Arcot (the capital of the Carnatic) to divert the pressure from Trichinopoly in which the British won.
• After several battles fought, Chanda Sahib was executed by Muhammad Ali who was later installed as the Nawab of Carnatic.
• Results
• The French authorities, annoyed at the heavy financial losses that Dupleix’s policy involved, decided to recall him in 1754.
• Charles Robert Godeheu succeeded Dupleix as the French Governor-General in India. He adopted a policy of negotiations with the English and signed the Treaty of Pondicherry with them under which the English and the French agreed not to interfere in the quarrels of native princes.
• Also, each party was left in possession of the territories actually occupied by them at the time of the treaty.

Third Carnatic War (1758-63)

• In Europe, when Austria wanted to recover Silesia in 1756, the Seven Years War (1756-63) started.
• Britain and France were once again on opposite sides.
• Course of War in India
• In 1758, the French army under French General, Count de Lally captured the English forts of St. David and Vizianagaram in 1758.
• Now, the English became offensive and inflicted heavy losses on the French fleet under Admiral D’Ache at Masulipatnam.

Battle of Wandiwash

• The decisive battle of the Third Carnatic War was won by the English on January 22, 1760 at Wandiwash (or Vandavasi) in Tamil Nadu.
• General Eyre Coote of the English totally routed the French army under Count de Lally and took Marquis de Bussy as prisoner.
• Pondicherry was gallantly defended by Lally for eight months before he surrendered on January 16, 1761.
• With the loss of Pondicherry, Gingee and Mahe, the French power in India was reduced to its lowest.
• Result and Significance
• The Third Carnatic War proved decisive.
• The third war ended with the Treaty of Peace of Paris (1763) under which Pondicherry and Chandannagar were returned to France but they could only have trading activities in them.
• Although the treaty restored to the French their factories in India, the French political influence disappeared after the war.
• The English became the supreme European power in the Indian subcontinent.
• Causes for the English Success
• Lesser Governmental Control Over British
• Superior British Navy and Bigger Cities Under Control
• British were Strong with Funds
• Superior British Commanders

Why the English Succeeded against Other European Powers

• Structure and Nature of the Trading Companies
• Naval Superiority
• Industrial Revolution
• Military Skill and Discipline
• Stable Government
• Lesser Zeal for Religion
• Use of Debt Market

Civil Rebellions – 1757 to 1857 ( Back Drop of 1857 Revolt)

The revolt of 1857 was not an isolated phenomenon or an event in isolation.  It represented a climax of long process. If we accept beginning of colonization process from battle of Plassey in 1757, then the reaction against such colonisation process started from 1757 itself. Such reaction was in form of smaller revolts by peasants, tribes, and parts of civil society. However such revolts were small, isolated were suppressed by Britishers yet they represented Indian reaction against British rule in India. These smaller revolts at different places have been called “Civil Rebellions’.

Factor And Forces Behind Civil Rebellions

• The foremost factor behind civil rebellion was colonial rule of British in India. They were colonial and so were their policies. They adversely affected different section of society like peasants, Tribes, Traders, Zamindars etc. These sections of society took the arms against British.
• British rule introduced rapid change in India. They introduced change in administration, land revenue system in economy etc. These changes were pro British and anti India. Such changes were reacted against by Indians.
• The new land revenue policy adversely affected farming community. Both zamindars and peasants began to loose control over land and land revenue. So in reaction, they resorted to violence.
• The new treatment to Agriculture by British led to a process called “Deagricultarisation”. British began to change agriculture suiting their interest. But for India it was a process of deagricultarisation. The indigo plantation was its fine example.
• The economic policies of British caused misery to craftsmen, artisans and manufacturers of small goods. They had to abandon their ancestral work. The British new import policy flooded Indian market with the cheap machine made goods. Unable to compete with machine based mass manufacturing, they became unemployed and debt trapped.
• Britishers introduced new administration in India. The new administrative set up involved new judicial system, new rules and regulations, new laws, etc. All represented official suppression. People could not digest new judicial system based on European lines and reacted against such new system in form of civil rebellions.
• Indian civil society also felt humiliated as India began to be ruled by foreigners. Slowely British were taking all control in their hands. The traditional system of rule was loosing its relevance. The control over India by foreigners could not be digested by different sections of society.
• The scholarly and priestly class provided leadership and guidance to these revolts. Actually they lost patronage what they have had been enjoying under traditional rule in India.   

Some important civil rebellions

1. Sanyasi rebellion – (1763-1820) – Sanyasi rebellion occured in Bengal. The immediate cause was the pilgrimages to holy places stopped by British. During this time, Bengal was going through severe famine, which created acute conditions for people. The Hindu Naga Sadhus, who were earlier part of army of Nawab of Oudh, Bengal and Rajputs led the revolt against British. They raided English factories, and installations. Although, the revolt was suppressed by the British, yet it left a long lasting impression. The famous novel Anandmath (Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay) is based on this rebellion.
2. Paika Rebellion — (1817-1825) — Paikas were essentially the peasant militias of the Gajapati rulers of Odisha who rendered military service to the king during times of war while taking up cultivation during times of peace. They unfurled the banner of rebellion against the British under the leadership of Baxi Jagabandhu Bidyadhara as early as 1817 to throw off the British yoke.  Rulers of Khurda were traditionally the custodians of Jagannath Temple and ruled as the deputy of lord Jagannath on earth. They symbolised the political and cultural freedom of the people of Odisha. The British, having established their sway over Bengal Province and Madras Province to the north and south of Odisha, occupied it in 1803.The Gajapati King of Odisha Mukunda Deva-ll was a minor then and initial resistance by Jai Rajguru, the custodian of Mukunda Deva-II, was put down brutally and Jai Rajguru was torn apart alive. A few years later, it was the Paikas under Baxi Jagabandhu, the hereditary chief of the militia army of the Gajapati King, who rose in rebellion, taking support of tribals and other sections of society. The British were initially taken aback and then tried to regain lost ground but faced stiff resistance from the rebelling Paikas. Widespread suppression followed with many killed and imprisoned. Many more were tortured. Some rebels fought a guerilla war till 1819 but were captured and killed. Baxi Jagabandhu was finally arrested in 1825 and died in captivity in 1829.
3. Ramosi uprising – (1822 –26) – People of Ramosi community once served in lower ranks in Maratha army. They also constituted a farming community in Satara region of Maharashtra. They revolted in Satara under the leadership of Chittur Singh against heavy land revenue and harsh methods of revenue collection. Another important leader of Ramosi rebellion was Umaji who provided leadership to revolt during famine conditions in Satara.
4. Revolt of Velu Thampi – (1808-09) – Velu Thampi was Diwan of Travancore (Kerla). He rose into revolt against British as he was sacked from Diwanship. British also imposed heavy financial burden over Travancore state under subsidiary alliance. He mobilized people against British and posed challenge to British. However revolt was suppressed and Velu Thampi died in action.
5. Revolt of Kittur Chinnamma – (1824-29) – In 1824, The Kittur (Karnataka) chief died without a natural heir and the British refused to recognize adopted son as heir to the throne of Kittur and took over the administration of Kittur in their own hands. Chinnamma, the widow of deceased chief led the revolt against British. She mobilized the people of Kittur state and killed the collector of Dharwar. She also declared the independence of Kittur. The revolt was suppressed and later Chinnamma died in prison.
6. Satara Revolt – (1840-41) – British deposed the king of Satara- Raja Partap Singh. There was general anger among the people. Dhar Rao, provided the leadership to the revolt. British faced lot of difficulties to suppress the revolt.
7. Bundela rebellion – This revolt was led by Landlord of Sagar region (Madhya Pradesh). It was a outburst against government’s economic policies associated with landlords and zamindars. People killed many police officers and civil officers and began to plunder the town. British resorted to violence to suppress the revolt.
8. Gadkari Uprising – 1844 – Gadkari community people were hereditary servants of Marathas. During British rule, it was an important farming community in Maharashtra. They resorted to violence against British arbitrary methods of land revenue collection. They were also angry because of govt policy to put their land under supervision of Mamlatdars. British could suppress this revolt after great efforts.
9. Sawantwadi Revolt – Sawantwadis were followers of a Maratha leader Sawant. He led the revolt along with another Maratha leader Anna Sahib against British political and economic policies. They formed a huge force and captured the forts, British adopted suppressive measures which forced them to flee to Goa. They created turmoil even in Goa. British had to impose martial law and inflicted severe punishment against Sawantwadies.