Towards Civil Disobedient – Movement

Simon commission

• In 1927 the British (Lord Birkenhead was the Secy. of State) decided to appoint a commission to recommend further constitutional reforms.  The Indian protest was on the grounds that the commission headed by Sir John Simon was an “all white” commission.  Lord Birkenhead constantly talked of the inability of Indians to arrive at any consensus and that the British did not find any one from among the Indians fit enough to serve in a body that would make recommendation about India’s political future.  The commission’s arrival in India led to a powerful protest movement in which nationalist enthusiasm unity reached new heights.  On 3rd Feburary, the commission was greeted with hartals and black flag demonstrations.
• They could not carry with on white their coalition partners because of conflicting ideas

Nehru report

• To measure up to the challenge of the British the Report was tabled in 1928.  it remains memorable as the first major Indian effort to draft a constitutional framework for India complete with lists of central and provincial subjects and fundamental rights.
• It demanded responsible government both in the center and in the provinces.  But it advocated Dominion Status and not complete independence.
• It demanded universal adult suffrage.
• It rejected separate communal electorates.  It proposed reservation  for the Muslims at the centre and in provinces in which they were in minority.
• The report recommended equal rights for women, freedom to for unions, and dissociation of the state from religion in any form.
• Calcutta Session of INC in 1928 approved the report.  INC now wanted the English government to either accept or reject the recommendations of the suggested constitution based on Dominion status.  By Swaraj the Congress leaders had so far meant the Dominion Status for India within the ambit of British Empire.

Irwin Offer of 1929

• Dominion Status (DS) was a natural issue of Indian constitutional progress.
• A proposed Round Table Conference (RTC) after the publication of the Simon Report.

Lahore session (december 1929)

• Irwin talks broke down on the issue of Dominion Status, which the British were reluctant to concede immediately.  Jawaharlal Nehru replace Motilal Nehru as the INC President at Lahore and the major decisions taken at Lahore session.
• Round Table Conference to be boycotted.
• Purna-Swaraj or complete independence as the main aim of Congress.
• Launch a programme of civil disobedience including non payment of taxes.
• January 26th 1930 fixed as the 1st Independence day to be celebrated everywhere.
• On December 31, 1929 the tricolour was hoisted on the banks of Ravi.
• It was resolved that a Manifesto or pledge of Independence would be taken all over India by as many people as possible on January 26, 1930.

Civil disobedience movement

• After the INC authorized Gandhiji to start CDM, he placed Eleven Point Ultimatum to Irwin (31st January, 1930) for administrative reforms and stated that if Lord Irwin accepted them there would be no need for agitation.
• Civil Disobedience Movement started with the Dandi March on 12th March.  Salt production had geographical limitations.  So in other parts of the country the movement included – (a) Picketing of liquor shops and auctions (b)  No revenue campaign in Bardoli (c)  Forest Satyagrahas (d)  Large scale resignation of rural officials (e) Refusal of chaukidari tax  (f)  Prabhat Pheris-singing of national songs  (g) Patrikas-distribution of illegal pamphlets.

11 – point ultimatum

• Reduce expenditure on Army and civil services by 50%.
• Introduce total prohibition.
• Carry out reforms in Criminal Investigation Department (C.I.D.)
• Change Arms Act allowing popular control of issue of licences. 
• Release political prisoners.
• Accept Postal Reservation Bill
• Reduce rupee-sterling exchange ratio
• Introduce textile protection
• Reserve coastal shipping for Indians.
• Reduce land revenue by 50%
• Abolish salt tax. 

First round table conference (1931)

• First ever conference arranged between the British and Indians as equals.
• Congress and most business leaders kept away.
• Muslim League – represented by Mohammed Ali, Agha Khan, Fazlul Haq and Jinnah.
• Hindu Mahasabha – represented by Moonje and Jayakar.
• Liberals – represented by Sapru, Chintamani and Srinivas Sastri.
• Princes – represented by Akbar Hydari and Mirza Ismail, the Dewans of Hyderabad and Mysore respectively.
• With Incidents of rising violence and with majority of leading Congress leaders behind bars Gandhiji called for rather sudden retreat.  He initiated a talk with Irwin, which culminated in the Delhi Pact of 5th March popularly called Gandhi Irwin Pact.

Delhi pact gandhi-irwin pact

• Irwin agreed to release al political prisoners except Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev.
• Right to make salt in coastal villages for personal consumption.
• Gandhi agreed to suspend CDM and participate in 2nd session of RTC.

Second round table conference

• Gandhi agreed to attend the Second Round Table Conference scheduled to be held in September 1931.  He demanded control over defence and foreign affairs.  Hindu Mahasabha demanded federal responsibility which was opposed by Muslim League and the Princes.  Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for Dalits which was opposed by Gandhi.
• The Government refused to concede the basic nationalist demand of freedom on the basis of immediate grant of dominion status.
• The Second Round Table Conference ended with MacDonald’s announcement of :
• Two Muslim majority provinces – NWFP and Sindh
• Indian Consultation Committee was to be set up.
• Expert committees on Finance, Franchise and states.
• Prospect of Unilateral British Communal Award if Indians failed to agree.

Chronological of events in  CDM

• 12 March, 1930 – Dandi March was undertaken from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi.
• 18 April, 1930 – Chittagong Armoury was raided by Surya Sen.
• May 1930 – Textile workers strike at Sholapur.
• January 1931 – First Round Table Conference
• 5 March, 1931 – ‘Delhi Pact’ signed between Viceroy Irwin and Gandhi. 
• 23 March 1931 – Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev were executed.
• March 1931 (Karachi Congress) – It accepted Delhi Pact.  Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn.  The session also passed the resolution for Fundamental Rights and the Economic Policy.
• September-December 1931 – Gandhi participated in Second Session of the Round Table Conference.
• December 1931 – Gandhi returned and launched CDM but the movement was brutally suppressed by force.
• April 1934 – The movement was withdrawn formally.

Regional spread

• Chittagong : 18th April, armoury raid by Surya Sen.
• Peshawar :  23 April, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan’s Khudai Khidmatgar activated the NWFP leading to rioting where the Hindu Gharwal rifles refused to fire on Muslim rioters.
• Sholapur  news of Gandhis arrest (4th May) led to working class strike form 7th to 17th May.
• Darshana salt works (21 May) satyagraha led by Sarojini Naidu, Imam Saheb and Maniklal Gandhi.
• Madras : Rajagopala Chari led the March from Trichinopoly to Vedaranniyam.
• Kerala :  K. Kelappan marched from Calicut to Payannur.  Central Provinces had forest satyagrahas. 

Resumption of Civil Disobedience and withdrawal

• After returning from the second Round Table Conference empty handed, Gandhi restarted the Civil Disobedience Movement on 29th December 1931. Government imposed sweeping ordinances banning all Congress organisations.  On January 4, 1932 Congress leaders including Gandhi and Sardar Patel were arrested.  Press and National Literature was banned.
• Pretests included picketing of shops selling liquor and foreign cloth, non violent demonstrations, celebrations of national days, symbolic hoistings of national flag, non payment of chowkidari tax, salt satyagraha, forest law violations and installations of a secret radio near Bombay.  Civil Disobedience Movement coincided with upsurges in Kashmir and Alwar.
• Gandhi suspended Civil Disobedience temporarily in May 1933, and formally withdrew it in April 1934.  He then decided to make Harijan work the central plank of his new rural constructive programme.

Communal award and poona pact

• On August 16, 1932 McDonald announced the proposal on minority representation, known as the “Communal Award” which recommended :
• to double the existing seats in provincial legislatures,
• to retain the system of separate electorate for the minorities.
• to grant weightage to Muslims in provinces where they were in minority
• to reserve 3% seats for women in all provincial legislature except in NWEP
• to recognize depressed classes as minority community and make them entitled to the right of separate electrode, and
• to allocate seats to labour, landlords, and traders and industrialists.

Gandhi’s objections

• Gandhi reacted strongly to the proposal of granting the right of separate electorates to the Depressed Classes.  He regarded the Depressed Classes as an integral part of Hindu society.  He thought what was required was not protection of the depressed classes but root and branch eradication of untouchability.   He had pinned his hopes for their welfare in the firm belief that the Hindu would do full social justice to fully integrate them within their fold. He demanded that the depressed classes be elected through a joint and if possible a wider electorate through universal franchise.
• To persuade the recalcitrant Ambedkar to accept his viewpoint, Gandhi, then in the Yarvada Jail, resorted to fast unto death. In an anxiety to save his life, the Poona Pact with the following main terms was concluded between him and Ambedkar on 25th September 1932.
• 147 seats were to be allotted to the depressed classes in the provincial legislature as against 71 promised by the Communal Award and 18% of the total in central legislature.
• It was promised that a certain percentage of seats allotted to the general non-Muslim electorate would be reserved for the depressed class.
• Adequate representation for the depressed classes in the civil services.
• Ambedkar also accepted the principle of joint electorate.

Third RTC

• Third Round Table Conference was scheduled to be held in London (1932).  The congress did not participate in it.  The discussions led to the passing of the Government of India Act, 1935.

CDM compared to NCM

• Launched to attain Purna Swaraj and not merely to remedy wrongs.
• It involved deliberate violation of law and not merely non-cooperation.
• In the initial phase urban people participated but it spread to rural areas where it gained its maximum strength.
• Little Muslim and labour participation.
• Women participated on a large scale to picket shops.

Gandhi’s harijan campaign

• Gandhiji withdrew from the Civil Disobedience Movement to focus on Harijan welfare.  After the Poona Pact Gandhi stated an All India Anti – Untouchability League and the weekly newspaper, Harijan.
• Harijan welfare work by Gandhians indirectly helped to spread the message of nationalism down to the most oppressed sections of rural society.
• Gandhi confined the Harijan Campaign to limited social reform (opening of wells, roads, and particularly temples, plus humanitarian work) delinking it from any economic demands (though many Harijans were agricultural labourers,) and also refusing to attack caste as a whole.
• The Harijan Movement was formally withdrawn in April 1934.

Impact of CDM

• The Congress swept the polls in most provinces in 1937.
• The :Left alternative emerged, for the Movement had aroused expectations, which Gandhian strategy could not fulfill.
• At the level of leadership, Nehru and Bose voiced the new mood, emphasising the need to combine nationalism with radical social and economic programmes.
• Some Congress activists formed a socialist group within the party in 1934.
• Kisan Sabhas with anti-zamindar programmes developed rapidly in provinces like Bihar and Andhra.

• It provided for the establishment of an All India Federation based on a union of the provinces of British India and Princely states.
• It also provided for a bicameral federation legislature in which the states were given disproportionate weightage.
• The representatives of the states were not to be elected by the people but directly by the rulers.
• Only 14% of the total population was given the right to vote.
• The Government-General & Governors were to be appointed by the British.
• Governors were given special powers and they could veto legislative action and legislate on their own.
• The federal part of the Act was never introduced but the provincial part was soon put into operation.

• Following the withdrawal of the CDM, Gandhi wanted to focus upon his village reconstruction programme and Harijan Campaign while many to her party members wanted to fight the elections.  In October 1934 Gandhi resigned from the Indian National Congress.
• In the Elections to the Central Legislative Assembly in November 1934 the Congress won 45 seats out of the 75.  The government announced the holding of elections to the provincial legislatures in February 1937 under the Government of India Act 1935 which promised provincial autonomy.  At the Lucknow session (April 1936), the Congress decided to contest them.  The Congress framed a detailed political and economic programme at the Faizpur session (December 1936) under the Presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru.

Provincial Elections under the goi Act 1935

• The Congress won a massive mandate, It formed ministries in 8 provinces-Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, Orissa, Bihar, U.P. NWFP and Assam.
• Hripura Session (Mar 1938)  declared Purna Swaraj ideal to cover Princely States.
• Tripuri Congress ( Mar 1939) favoured active participation in the Princely States because of the federal structure of the 1935 Act and due to assumption of office by the Congress after the 1937 elections.
• The Tripuri Session witnessed Bose vs. Sitaramyya (Gandhi’s nominee) conflict. Bose resigned to form the Forward Bloc.

WW-II

• The onset of the World War-II had a tremendous impact on the Indian political scene. In September 1939, the Viceroy unilaterally declared India on war with Germany without bothering to consult any Indian leader.  In protest, Congress Ministries resigned in October 1939. Muslim League declared it to be the ‘day of deliverance.’ (The Muslim League’s Lahore Session passed Pakistan Resolution in March 1940. It was drafted by Sikandar Hayat Khan, moved by Fazlul Haq and seconded by Khaliquzzaman.)
• National congress was willing to help the forces of democracy in their struggle against fascism, but asked how was it possible for an enslaved nation to aid others in their fight of democracy.  They declared that India must be declared free or at least effective power put in Indian hands before it could actively participate in the war.
• The Viceroy refused to accept preconditions set by the Congress-Constituent Assembly for establishment of genuine responsible government at the Centre.  Eventually, however, the British Government was eager for the INC to support their War efforts. Subsequently, it tried to pacify the Congress and the Indian leaders by a series of offers through August Offer and Cripps Mission.

August offer, 1940

• The Viceroy  (Linlithgow) put forward a proposal that included:
• Dominion Status in the unspecified future
• A post-war body to enact the constitution
• Expansion of Governor-General’s Council with representation of the Indians
• Establishing a War Advisory Council
• In this offer he promised the Muslim League and other minorities that the British Government would never agree to a constitution or government in India, which did not enjoy their support (the Muslim League had demanded Pakistan in its Lahore session of 1940).  The Congress rejected this offer because:
• There was no suggestion for a national government and because the demand for Dominion Status was already discarded in favor of Purna Swaraj
• It encouraged anti-Congress forces like the Muslim League.

Individual Satyagraha

• With the failure of the British govt. to measure up to the demands, there were two opinions in Congress about the launching of civil disobedience.  Gandhi felt that the atmosphere was not in favor of civil disobedience as there were differences and indiscipline within the Congress.  However, the Congress Socialists and the All India Kisan Sabha were in favor of immediate struggle.
• Convinced that the British would not modify their policy in India, (the Congress having rejected the August Offer), Gandhi decided to start the Individual Satyagraha.
• The very reason for confining the movement to individual participation was that neither Gandhi nor the Congress wished to hamper the War effort and this was not possible in a mass movement.  Even the aim of the Satyagraha was a limited one i.e. to disprove the British claim of India supporting the War effort whole-heartedly.
• On 17 October 1940 Vinoba Bhave became the first satyagrahi followed by Nehru.  The Delhi Chalo Satyagraha was also launched. The sole issue was freedom of speech, specially the right to make antiwar speeches.
• The demand of the satyagrahis was freedom of speech against war through an anti war declaration.  If the Government did not arrest the satyagrahi, he or she would not only repeat it but move into villages and start a march towards Delhi-Delhi Chalo Movement.

The Cripps Mission: March-April 1942

• Under the pressure of Allies and the need for gestures to win over Indian public opinion, the British were forced to offer reconciliatory measures.  After the fall of Rangoon to the Japanese the British decided to send the Cripps Mission to India for constitutional proposals, which included:
• Dominion status to be granted after the war with the right to secede (Any province could, if it so desired, remain outside the Indian Union and negotiate directly with Britain)
• Constitution making body to be elected from Provincial Assemblies and Princes’ nominees after the War
• Individual princes could sign a separate agreement with the British which is effect accommodated the Pakistan demand
• British would however, control the defence for war period.
• The Congress did not want to rely upon future promises.  It wanted a responsible government with full powers and also a control over the country’s defence.  Gandhi termed the proposals as a post dated cheque in a crashing bank.  Cripps Mission failed to satisfy Indian nationalists and turned out to be merely a propaganda device for US and Chinese consumption.
• But above all the Cripps Proposals brought in “Pakistan” through the backdoor via the “local option” clause.
• Though the Cripps Mission failed, Cripps proposals provided legitimacy to the Pakistan demand by accommodating it in their provision for provincial autonomy.

Quit India Movement

• In the back-drop of the failure of Cripps mission, imminent Japanese threat, the British attitude towards Indians who were left behind in Burma and the prevailing anger and hostility to an alien and meaningless war. Quit India resolution was passed on 8 August 1942 at Gowalia Tank, Bombay.  Gandhi told the British to quit and “leave India in God’s hand”.  His message was ‘Do or Die’.

Public participation:

• Parallel governments were established in Satara-(Prati Sarkar under Nana Pati), Talcher (Orissa), parts of eastern U.P. and Bihar.
• In Bengal, Tamluk Jatiya Sarkar functioned in Midnapore district.  This national government had various departments like Law and Order, Health, Education, Agriculture, etc. along with a postal system of its own and arbitration courts.
• The Movement had initially been strong in the urban areas but soon it was the populace of rural areas, which kept the banner of revolt aloft for a longer time.
• The trend of underground revolutionary activity also started  during this phase. Jaya Prakash Narain and Ramnandan Misra escaped from Hazaribagh Jail and organized an underground movement.

• In Bombay, the Socialist leaders continued their underground activities under leaders like Aruna Asaf Ali.  The most daring act of the underground movement was the establishment of Congress Radio with Usha Mehta as its announcer.
• The participation was on many levels.  School and College students remained in the forefront, women actively participated and workers went on strikes.  Though, peasants concentrated their offence on symbols of authority, there was complete absence of anti Zamindar violence. There were no communal clashes during the movement. Repression was severe.
• The Movement did not evoke much response from  the merchant community.  In fact, most of the Capitalists and merchants had profited heavily during the War.
• The ‘Muslim League kept aloof and the Hindu Mahasabha condemned the Movement.  The Communist Party of India due to its “People’s War line did not support the movement.  The Indian Princes and the landlords were supporting the War effort and therefore did not sympathize with the movement.
• Some Congress leaders like Rjagopalachari also did not participate.
• In the initial stages, the Movement was based on non-violent lines.  Repressive policy of the government and indiscriminate arrests of the leaders provoked people to violence.  (Nehru was lodged in Almora Jail, Maulana Azad in Bankura and Gandhi in Agha Khan’s palace, Poona). Further, it was the only all-India movement, which was leader less. In many areas, the government lost all control and the people established Swaraj.

Rajagopalachari formula (1945)

• In 1944, C Rajagopalachari proposed that after the termination of the war, a Commission could be appointed for demarcating contiguous districts in the north-west and east where Muslims were in absolute majority.  In the areas thus demarcated, a plebiscite would be held on the basis of adult suffrage that would ultimately decide the issue of separation from Hindustan.  If the majority decided in favor of forming separate SovereignState, such decision could be accepted.
• In case of acceptance of partition, agreement to be made jointly for safeguarding defence, commerce, communications etc.  The above terms would to be operative only if England transferred full powers to India.
• Muslim League was expected to endorse the Congress demand for independence and co-operate with it in the formation of provisional government for the interim period.
• Jinnah objected, as he wanted congress to accept two-nation theory and wanted only Muslims of the northwest and east of India to vote in the plebiscite. Hindu leaders led by V.D.Savarkar condemned the plan.

Shimla conference (june-july 1945)

• Proposed by Wayell
• Talks suggested setting up of a new Executive council with only Indian members.  The Viceroy and the Commander in Chief would be the only non-Indian members of the council.
• ‘Caste Hindus’ and the Muslims would have equal representation the executive would work within the existing constitution (i.e. not responsible to the central Assembly) but the door was kept open for discussions on a new constitution.
• The Congress, headed by Maulana Azad, resented being characterized as a caste Hindu organization.
• Talks broke down due to Jinnah’s demand for the Muslim League to have absolute choice in choosing all Muslim members and a demand for communal veto, though it had ministries only in Assam and Sind.
• The dissolution of the conference gave Jinnah the Communal Veto in effect.  Thereafter the satisfaction of the League became a pre-requisite to any major settlement.

Cabinet mission (march-june 1946)

• Members-Wavell, Pethwick Lawrance (Secretary of State), Stafford Cripps and Alexander.
• The Mission rejected the demand for a full-fledged Pakistan (Comprising the whole of all the Muslim majority areas).  The Mission reasoned that the right of communal self-determination, if conceded to Muslims, also had to be granted to non-Muslims who formed majorities in West Bengal and Eastern Punjab, as well as in Assam proper.  The ‘truncated’ or smaller Pakistan was unacceptable to the League.

The Plan proposed

• Rejection of the demand for a full fledge Pakistan
• For a very loose union of all the Indian territories under a centre that would control merely the defence, the Foreign Affairs and the Communications, leaving all other subjects to the existing provincial legislatures.
• Provincial legislatures would elect a Constituent Assembly.  The members would divide up into three sections-A, B and C while electing the constituent Assembly.  All these sections would have the authority to draw up provincial constitutions and even group constitutions.
• Section A-Non Muslim Majority provinces (Bombay, UnitedProvinces, Bihar, Central Provinces, Orissa, Madras.
• Section B- Muslim majority provinces in the north-west (Sind, NWFP and Punjab)
• Section C-  Muslim majority provinces in North east Bengal, Assam.
• Communal questions in Central legislature were to be decided by a simple majority in both communities.
• Provinces were to have full autonomy and residual powers.
• Princely states were no longer to be under paramountcy of British Government. After the first general elections, a province could come out of a group and after 10 years a province  could call for reconsideration of the group or union constitution. Each group had powers to set up intermediate level legislature and executive on their own.
• The plan failed on the issue of the nature of grouping-Jinnah was for compulsory while Nehru was for grouping only till the formation of a constituent assembly. On 29th July 1946 Jinnah withdrew his earlier acceptance of the plan and fixed 16 August 1946 as Direct Action Day.  Calcutta, Noakhali, Garmukteshwar were the storm centres. Communal massacre weakened the Congress position in the NWFP.

Interim government

• Came into existence on 2nd September 1946 in accordance with Cabinet Mission’s proposal and was headed by J L. Nehru.  Muslim League refused to join it initially.
• Wavell persuaded the League leaders to join on 26 October 1946
• 8th December 1946-Constituent Assembly begins its session with Leaqat Ali Khan of Muslim League as the Finance Minister
• The Interim Government, obstructed by its League members and bureaucracy was reduced to a figurehead and was unable to control the communal carnage.

Atlee’s announcement

• Prime Minister Atlee on 20 February 1947 announced that the British would withdraw from India by 30 June, 1948 and that Lord Mountbatten would replace Wavell.  British powers and obligations vis-à-vis the princely states would lapse with transfer of power but these would not be transferred to any successor Government in British India.  Partition of the country was implicit in the provision that if the constituent assembly was not fully representative then power would be transferred to more than one central govt.  It was hoped that fixing a deadline, would shock both parties to come to an agreement.  The Muslim League  launched civil disobedience in Punjab, which led to the fall of Khizr Hayat Khan’s ministry.

Mountbatten Plan (3rd June Plan)

• His earlier Plan Balkan was abandoned for the 3rd June Plan
• The Plan declared that power would be handed over by 15 August 1947 on the basis of dominion status to India and Pakistan.
• Mountbatten supported the Congress stand that the princely states must not be given the option of independence.  They would either join India or Pakistan
• Boundary commission was to be headed by Radcliffe and the award was to be announced after Republic day which was a major cause of massacres
• Punjab and Bengal Legislative Assemblies would meet in two groups, Hindu’s and Muslims, to vote for partition.  If a simple majority of either group voted for partition, then these provinces would be partitioned.  In case of partition, two dominions and two constituent assemblies would be created.
• Independence for Bengal and accession of Hyderabad to Pakistan ruled out
• Mountbatten plan was to divide India but retain maximum unity.

Indian independence act, 1947

• Implemented on 15th August 1947 and Sovereignty of British Parliament was abolished.  Dominions of India and Pakistan were created.  Each dominion to have a Governor-General.  Pakistan was to comprise Sind, British Baluchistan, NWFP, West Punjab and East Bengal.

Indian national army

• The Japanese after defeating the British in South East Asia, took a number of Indian soldiers as prisoners of war eg Captain Mohan Singh.  In March 1942 a conference of Indians was held in Tokyo, and they formed the Indian Independence League.  At the Bangkok Conference (June, 1942) Rashbehari Bose was  formed by Mohan Singh.
• Subhash Chandra Bose had excaped to Berlin in 1941 and set up Indian Legion  there.  In July 1943, he joined the INA at Singapore.  There Rashbehari Bose handed over the leadership to him.
• Azad Hind Government and the Indian National Army was formed on 21 October 1943.
• INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhi, Azad and Nehru, Rani Jhansi Brigade was an exclusive Women force.
• After Germany’s surrendered in May 1945, INA was also decisively defeated.

Ina trials

• P K Sehgal, Shah Nawaz and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon were put on trial at the Red Fort.
• Bhulabhai Desai, Tejbahadur Sapru and Nehru appeared for the defence and the Muslim League also joined the countrywide protest.
• 12th Nov 1945 was celebrated as the INA day.

Rin mutiny

• 18 Feb. 1945, Bombay Ratings of HMS Talwar struck work due to flagrant racial discrimination, unpalatable food and abuse after the arrest of BC Dutt who had scrawled Quit India on the ship On 19th Feb HMS Hindustan, in Karachi also mutinied.
• Seventy-four ships, four flotillas and twenty shore establishments in Bombay, Karachi, Cochin, Vizag, Calcutta and Delhi had come under the command or influence of a Naval Central Strike Committee (headed by M.S. Khan). In Bombay the mutineers hoisted the tricolours on their shipmasts together with a portrait of Subhash Bose and shouted Jai Hind in the barracks.  Their demands included release of all political prisoners including those belonging to the Indian National Army.
• Vallabhbhai Patel and Jinnah jointly persuaded the ratings to surrender on 23rd February 1946.

The muslim league

• The partition scheme and the subsequent Swadeshi Movement were followed by the formation of the All India Muslim League towards the end of 1906 by Aga Khan, the Nawab of Dacca and Nawab Mohsinul Mulk. It consisted of a group of big Zamindars, ex-bureaucrats and other upper class Muslims.
• The factors that the helped the growth of Muslim separatism, were-the surfacing of Hindu revivalist tendencies during the Swadeshi movement, The British propaganda that the partition of Bengal would benefit the Muslims and the spurt in communal violence.
• Later, Muslim League came to be dominated by Young Turks who nursed anti-British feelings.  Britain had refused to aid Turkey in the Balkan Wars (1911-12) and had rejected University Status to the AligarhCollege.
• In 1928, the Muslim League rejected the Nehru Report, as it did not incorporate all their demands.  This led to the estrangement of Jinnah, who called it a ‘Parting of the Ways’ with the Congress and formulated his infamous fourteen points (including separate-electorates, reservation of seats in the center  and provinces, reservation of jobs for Muslims, creation of new Muslim majority provinces, etc.)  Which became the text of the communal demands.
• 19390, Dec 22- The Muslim League observes the resignation of the Congress ministries as Deliverance Day.
• 1940, March-Lahore session of the Muslim League passes the Pakistan Resolution.
• On Dec 1943 the Karachi Session of the Muslim League adopts the slogan-‘Divide and Quit’.

Integration of States

• By 15 August all except Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagadh had signed the Instrument of Accession with India, and Bhawalpur with Pakistan.  Goa was with the Portuguese and Pondicherry with the French.

• Warren Hastings set up the Calcutta Madrasa in 1781 for the study of Arabic and Persian.
• The  Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded by Sir William Jones in Calcutta in 1784
• Jonathan Duncan, the resident at Benares started the Sanskrit college in 1791
• Lord Welleslley started the FortWilliamCollege in 1800 for the training of Civil Servants, which the court of Directors closed in 1802
• William Carey, a Baptist missionary, set up schools and published Bengali translations of the Bible, thereby laying the foundations of English Education and Bengali prose literature
• The Charter Act of 1813, was the first to provide an annul expenditure of one lakh rupees “for the revival and promotion of literature.”
• David Here and Raja Rammohan Roy were instrumental in setting up the Calcutta Hindu college in 1817.  Which later developed into the PresidencyCollege.

Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy and Macualay’s Minutes

• The Orientalists led by HT Princep who favoured encouragement of Oriental literature and
• The Anglicist who favoured the advancement of Western Science and literature.
• Macualay, a member of the Executive Council wrote his Minute on Educational Policy (2, February 1833) which favoured the Anglicist viewpoint.  The Macualayan system was based as the idea that limited means negated mass education, hence a minority would be educated in English, who would act as ‘class of interpreters’, thereby enriching the vernaculars such that the knowledge of Western Sciences and literature would reach the masses.
• Lord William Bentick, in the Resolution of 7 March 1835, accepted Macualays viewpoint, which led to the promotion of European science and literature.

Sir charles wood despatch (1854)

• The President of the Board of Control, his scheme became the Magna Carta of English education in India.  The universities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay were set up in 1857.  It was Bethun’s contribution, which helped a setting up of a number of girls schools.

The hunter education commission (1882-83)

• Its main recommendations were basically for secondary   education.  Secondary Education should be in two sectors- literary Education leading to the university entrance examination and commercial and vocational training.

The raleigh commission (1902)

• The only Indian member of the commission Gurudas Banerji appointed by Lord Curzon, strongly disagreed with its recommendations, which were adopted in the Indian Universities Act of 1904.

The indian universities act (1904)

• It was enacted to ensure greater government controls over the Universities
• It transferred the power of ultimate decision in matters of college affiliation and schools recognition to government officials and sought to fix minimum colleges fees.

Sadler commission (1917-19)

• The two Indian members were Sir Ashutosh Mukherji and Dr. Ziauddin Ahmed.  It was mainly for higher education.
• It recommended a twelve year course of Matriculation, then intermediate followed by University
• University course was limited to three years and divided into Pass Course and Honours
• Each University should be a Centralized system.
• A Board of women’s education was also suggested.

Wardha scheme

• Wardha scheme of Basic Education 1937, worked out by the Zakir Hussain Committee after Mahatma Gandhi published a series of articles in the Harijan.  It centred around ‘manual productive work’ which would cover the remuneration of teachers. There was to be a seven-year course through the mother tongue of the students.  It was to be centred around crafts.

Sargeant Plan of Education (1944)

• It envisaged the establishment elementary schools and high schools
• Universal and compulsory education for all children between the age of six and eleven
• A school course of six years was to be provided for children between age eleven and seventeen
• High schools were to be of two types (a) academic and  (b) technical and vocational
• Intermediate courses were to be abolished.