RUSSIA UNDER LENIN

The initial triumph of the Bolshevik Revolution at the end of October, 1917, did not mean that the entire population of Russia had been converted to Bolshevism. Lenin was aware of this. To gather national support, Lenin resorted to slogans for the masses. The most important of them was "Bread, Land, Peace and All Power to the Soviets." The capital was moved from Petrograd to Moscow in the heart of European Russia.
The moment Lenin stepped into power, he knew what he wanted. All along, ever since the start, Lenin had wanted a Proletariat Revolution, which had been achieved, and then a Dictatorship of the Proletariat, in which he would rule on their behalf. His government would have complete power and the people would not have any opportunity to decide if they wished to be controlled by other parties. Marx had said in his writings that this was necessary to put down all opposition and put Communist reforms into place.
 

All political parties had been banned and party committees were set up all over to govern Russia. The most important committee was the Central Committee, made up of 3 sub-committees called the Orgburo, the Politburo and the Secretariat. When Lenin promised that a Constituent Assembly would be formed, he fulfilled his promise by holding elections immediately. However, it met only once and was disbanded shortly after.
The Bolsheviks had a secret police known as the Cheka. A Polish-born Communist by the name of Felix Dzerzhinsky was appointed the head of the Cheka. Their job was to hunt down opponents and critics of the Bolsheviks. These people were arrested, jailed, tortured and killed. The Cheka attacked many groups, including the Liberals, the Mensheviks and the SRs .
 

THE RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR

The Civil War occurred from 1918-1921. After a few months of victory in the revolution, the Bolsheviks were faced with a new threat...power from within Russia itself. These included Tsarists, Liberals, SRs and Mensheviks.
Lenin could not afford to involve the nation in a civil war. He knew that peace was necessary in order for the Bolsheviks to govern. The Russians began to negotiate with the Germans and Austro-Hungarians, to withdraw from the War. On March 3, 1918, the Russians signed the TREATY OF BREST-LITOVSK. This treaty deprived Russia of the entire Ukraine, the Baltic provinces, Finland and other territory that Russia had spent 300 years trying to acquire. One third of Russia's population was gone, 80% of its iron, and 90% of its coal. There was a sizable outcry against the Treaty within Russia itself.
There were hundreds of army officers who had sacrificed a great deal for the tsar's war, and now it seemed the Bolsheviks had just given away everything they had fought for. These army officers, combining their forces with the Tsarists, Liberals, SRs and Mensheviks, formed the White Army to engage in a war against Trotsky's Red Army.
 

Causes of the civil war

HATRED OF THE BOLSHEVIKS: The Whites hated the Bolsheviks, as they could see how the Bolsheviks were so successful and victorious in their revolutionary activities and how they now had power to control Russia. The Whites, however, all had different political purposes and ideals, thus making them disunited and less effective. The Reds were organized and united for the cause to keep the Bolsheviks in power.
 

FOREIGN INTERVENTION: Foreign countries like France, Britain, Japan, the USA and Poland got involved in the war for many different reasons.
1. At first, many countries got involved because they hoped a new government would aid them in the war against Germany. Even though Germany was defeated later on, they continued intervention, showing that this was not a very major reason.
2. A more major reason was probably their fear and hatred of the Bolsheviks as they anticipated the spread of Communism into Europe if they were allowed to carry on, maybe even throughout the world. They hoped that defeating the Reds would halt this spread.
3. For Poland, they wished to regain some former lands that Russia had taken from them previously.
4. Russia's former allies in World War I had provided them with military supplies, stored in the northern ports of Murmansk and Archangel. They were anxious to retrieve it and not let it be used by the Communist Bolsheviks.
5. The French were annoyed as the Bolsheviks refused to pay foreign debts left behind by the Tsar's government when he borrowed money to finance the war.
 

Course of the civil war

Isolated groups of opposition began appearing in various parts of Russia, and as the Bolsheviks did not have total control over Russia, their opponents could establish their own governments in opposition to the Moscow government. These people then formed the White Army
The Bolsheviks only controlled central Russia, but managed to invade Ukraine, defeating the White Generals Kornilov, Alexeyev and Denikin, as they were uncoordinated
The Czechoslovak Legion, soldiers taken prisoner by the Russians in WWI and given permission by the Bolsheviks to leave Russia by the Trans-Siberian Railway, seized control of it. The Legion then joined the White Army against the Communists, but the Red Army regained possession of the area in a few months
Several countries intervened in 1918, with the French, British and Americans attacking from the north and other French and British troops from the south in a bid to regain lost oilfields.
The Tsar and his family, held in the Ural Mountains were murdered as the Reds feared he might fall into enemy hands. 1919 was the period when they faced a major offensive from the Whites, with different generals attacking from all sides - Kolchak attacked from the east, Denikin from the south and Yudenich from Estonia. However, these attacks were largely uncoordinated and the Reds were able to defeat them easily. Communication was poor, military expertise was poor and personal quarrels between them also existed. By the end of 1919, the Reds had gained the upper hand in the war, and the foreign countries returned to their homelands
 

Reasons for Bolshevik victory

TROTSKY: Trotsky was probably one of the most important reasons why the Bolsheviks won. He had tremendous military skill and leadership. He was in charge of the Red Army and he worked hard to build up into a strong and skilful military force. By reintroducing conscription to provide more manpower, and making use of experts from the Tsar's army, he helped the Red Army achieve so much.
 

LOCATION: Another reason was the strategic location of the Bolshevik headquarters. They controlled central Russia, which made it easier for them to organize and coordinate their defence. The Whites, on the other hand, were spread all over and it was difficult to coordinate and communicate due to the long distances.
 

DIFFERENCE IN MENTALITY: The Bolsheviks were much more committed to their cause of the Red victory than the Whites were. Not only were they fighting for the Communist cause, they were also defending the newly-established Communist state. However, the Whites, who were not originally from one cause, had divided loyalties. They often quarreled amongst themselves and could not defeat the Bolsheviks decisively.
 

FOREIGN INTERVENTION: The Whites had the support of the foreign powers such as France and Britain. On the other hand, the Bolsheviks presented themselves as an extremely patriotic nationalist cause, fighting for the rights of Russia. The Whites were thus very unpopular due to their foreign links.
 

THE PEASANTS: The Bolsheviks had a lot of support from the peasants, much more than the Whites had. This was because the Whites treated the peasants very harshly in the areas they controlled. Furthermore, they had close ties with the old aristocracy, which led to even more hatred.
 

WAR COMMUNISM: The most important economic reason was Lenin's implementation of war communism. His plan was very important as it ensured that the military received its necessary supplies on time.
 

LENIN'S LEADERSHIP: Lenin's political leadership was, of course, a very important reason. His decision to introduce war communism was one of the most critical to the Red Army victory. In contrast, the Whites had ineffective and weak leadership provided by the different leaders of varied beliefs and ideals.
 

WAR COMMUNISM

Lenin hoped to move gradually into Communism through economic reforms. The Civil War increased the need for this to be implemented, as the soldiers needed food and other supplies. The peasants also had to supply the Red Army with food to continue fighting. The Reds needed clothes and other equipment if they wanted to win the war. As such, Lenin made the critical and crucial decision to introduce a great economic programme to help the Bolsheviks win the war. This programme was known as War Communism.
 

War communism in terms of agriculture

Communism was implemented in terms of agriculture in 1917, to supply the soldiers with enough food later on. The first measures of peasant land seizure were put in place, followed by nationalization of all land - meaning the state now owned the land. However, it was put under the peasants' control, basically meaning that they had the use of the land and they could do whatever they liked with it.
Insufficient grain was reaching the cities for certain reasons, so the government introduced grain requisitioning; excess food was seized. The government paid a very low price for this grain and there was, of course, widespread resistance to this. Most peasants would rather burn their crops and kill their livestock than hand them over to the Cheka. This resulted in an acute shortage of food and a great famine in 1920 and 1921. About 7.5 million Russians died from starvation and disease during the civil war.
 

War communism in terms of industry

All large-scale businesses were nationalized too, and without compensation. This was extended to all businesses with ten or more people by the end of 1918. In conjunction with communism, all private trade was abolished. The government controlled the people's food with ration cards and the workers were paid through food rations. The workers were directed where to work and strikes were made illegal.
Although the industries did function and the Red Army was supplied, industrial production declined. Starving workers went into the countryside to look for food. The distribution and transportation system was in such bad shape that the extra strain put on them by the civil wars caused them to collapse almost completely. Factories had to close down as raw materials were not reaching them on time and fuel was in short supply. There had been many illegal strikes by the time the civil war ended, as workers had become increasingly dissatisfied with War Communism.
 

Impact of war communism

Although War Communism helped the Bolsheviks to win the civil war, it was a very unsuccessful economic programme, which caused the near-collapse of the Russian economy in 1921. There was a lot of resentment among the peasants and the workers, as can be seen from the numerous large-scale uprisings and riots in the countryside and towns.
War communism had introduced the people to two key features of the Communist state: nationalization of land and businesses, and government planning and control of the economy. However, it was clearly evident that the plan was not working, so Lenin dropped War Communism in 1921 and instead adopted the NEW ECONOMIC POLICY (or NEP).
 

NEW ECONOMIC POLICY

Lenin's NEP was implemented to rebuild the Russian economy. Basically, some old capitalist forms of trading were reintroduced. Private ownership of smaller industries was permitted, but communism in the form of government control over industries such as banking and power supplies was still present.
Under NEP, the government stopped its policy of requisitioning the peasants' entire crop and instead began to take only what was needed to meet the minimum requirements of the army and urban workers. The peasants were still forced to pay a heavy tax in kind but they were now allowed to sell the remainder of their crop. They could sell either privately or to the state. In a word, peasant agriculture became capitalist and the profit motive reappeared.
Over the course of five years, NEP allowed industrial and agricultural output to rise to its pre-war levels. But, NEP was also bitterly disliked by leading communists who saw it as a reversal of everything they believed. The NEP was quite a success until the 1924, when Lenin died. His successor decided not to continue with the NEP after that.
 

Success of Soviet Union and its achievements influenced political systems, colonialism and relations with other countries throughout the world. Comment
The growing popularity of socialism and many achievements made by the Soviet Union led to a redefinition of democracy. Most people who did not believe in socialism also began to recognize that for democracy to be real, political rights without social and economic rights were not enough. Economic and social affairs could not be left to the capitalists. The idea of the state playing an active role in regulating the economy and planning the economy to improve the conditions of the people was accepted. The biblical idea, revived by the socialist movement and the Russian Revolution, ‘He that does not work neither shall he eat’, gained widespread acceptance, adding a new dignity to labour. The popularity of socialism also helped to mitigate discriminations based on race, colour and sex.
The spread of socialist ideas also helped in promoting internationalism. The nations began to accept the idea that their relations with other nations should go farther than merely promoting their narrow self-interests. Many problems which were considered national began to be looked upon as concerns of the world as a whole. The universality and internationalism which were fundamental principles of socialist ideology from the beginning were totally opposed to imperialism and renounced all the unequal treaties which the Czar's governement had imposed on counties like Iran, China and Afghanistan. The Russian Revolution served to hasten the end of imperialism. According to Marx, a nation which enslaves another nation can never be free. Socialists all over the world organized campaigns for putting an end to imperialism.
The new Soviet state came to be looked upon as a friend of the peoples of the colonies struggling for national independence. Russia after the Revolution was the first country in Europe to openly support the cause of independence of all nations from foreign rule. Immediately after the Revolution, the Soviet government had annulled the unequal treaties which the Czar had imposed on China. It also gave assistance of various kinds to Sun Yat Sen in his struggle for the unification of China. The Russian Revolution also influenced the movements for independence in so far as the latter gradually broadened the objectives of independence to include social and economic equality through planned economic development. Writing about the Russian Revolution in his Autobiography, Jawaharlal Nehru said, “It made me think of politics much more in terms of social change.”

RUSSIA UNDER STALIN

The years between 1922 and 1928 witnessed a desperate struggle for power between Trotsky and Stalin. Stalin used his power as the then General Secretary of the Communist Party to get rid of Trotsky and the other opposition.
In opposition to Trotsky who advocated world revolution, Stalin maintained that socialism was possible within one country. An independent socialist state could indeed exist. This did not mean that Stalin abandoned the idea of a world revolution. What it did mean is that until the world revolution did take place, Russia would have to serve as the world's shining example of socialism.
After defeating Trotsky and ridding the party of all his rivals, Stalin began to build up Russia. As he said, "Other countries are 50 years ahead of Russia. We must make this up in 10 years." As such, he had two main aims:
(i) A centrally-planned economy called a command economy;
(ii) A totalitarian system of government.
 

A CENTRALLY PLANNED ECONOMY

STALIN'S ECONOMIC AIMS: Stalin wanted the USSR to modernize at a fast rate. The industry had to be developed to such an extent that the country, which had all along depended mostly on agriculture or farming, had to be changed such that it now depended on industry more. Although Russia was recovering from war, its production from heavy industries was still low compared to other countries. Stalin felt that this needed to be improved if they were to survive any possible attack that might come from the capitalist West attempting to destroy Communist Russia. The USSR needed to invest in materials like coal, iron, steel and power to defend itself properly. Rapid industrialization was also needed for defence as the USSR was surrounded, as Stalin said, by governments that hated Communism: Romania, Iran, Finland and Poland.
In order to become a strong industrial economy, the agricultural sector had to be modernized and made more efficient so it could produce enough food to meet the needs of the workforce. It would also be able to raise money needed for industrialization. Surplus had to be exported and money used to buy machinery and such. Fewer workers could then be used on the farms and industrialization could take place more rapidly by transferring more workers from the countryside to the factories. This rapid industrialization would also bring about two political results:

• Communist support would increase as the workers were the Communists' greatest supporters;
•  Remaining opposition would be eliminated, in particular the class of rich peasants, the kulaks.

Main features of Centrally Planned Economy

During this period, Russia's economy was completely transformed. The state planned the entire economy through the State Planning Commission, or Gosplan. They issued instructions and orders, commands that were then passed down to factories, businesses or farms. They drew up a series or plans which Stalin dubbed, the Five Year Plans.
The three Five-Year Plans set targets and goals that the industry and agriculture had to achieve. In practice, the emphasis was on achieving more than the set targets rather than meeting them. Such a system greatly discouraged individual initiative. For example, a factory manager received his commands and just carried them out to the letter.
The government controlled the resources it needed to achieve the economic targets. Factories, mines, transport and farms were owned by the state. The government exercised tight control over the labour force. Ordinary workers were harshly disciplined and poor workmanship and absence made things worse.
Millions of peasants were directed into the towns and cities to work in factories and mines. These and other heavy industries were given high priority in the first Five Year Plan. Consumer industries were neglected and agriculture was reorganized to suit this.
 

A TOTALITARIAN GOVERNMENT

A totalitarian government is one where there is only one party allowed - the ruling party. In Stalin's Russia this meant that the Communist Party was supreme. All criticism and opposition is eliminated. The people are expected to be totally loyal to the state and to the person at the head of the government.
Stalin ruled as a dictator, commanding his people with absolute power. He conducted many purges against his rivals and introduced a new constitution which reinforced his power. The secret police and even a personality cult helped to build up his image and keep him in power.
 

PURGES

Under Stalin's totalitarian government of the 1930s, many purges were held, killing millions. The main reason for the purges was because Stalin felt insecure. People were questioning his leadership, his methods and his policies.
Many people were unhappy with the harshness of his Five Year Plans. He also faced criticism from within the party. Politicians who were overly critical of Stalin were at risk, but a few took their chances. Sergei Kirov was one such man. He had been one of Stalin's closest supporters on the Politburo and was, in 1934, the party boss of Leningrad. At the 1934 Party Congress, Kirov switched sides and began criticizing Stalin and his harsh policies. Fearless ones warmly applauded Kirov as they agreed, while other less daring ones remained silent. Stalin's position in the Central Committee was under siege, as Kirov pulled in the highest number of votes while Stalin got the lowest. He only managed to stay in as there were just as many vacancies as there were candidates.
As such, Stalin decided to take action against Kirov who was emerging as a potential rival for leadership of the Party. On 1st December 1934, Stalin had Kirov assassinated. On the same day, Stalin passed a law that ordered anyone accused of terrorism and plots against the government was to be arrested and executed immediately after conviction. This law gave Stalin the chance to carry out the Great Purges properly and easily without any resistance.
 

The great purges

Stalin used this 1934 law to launch a massive purge of all the people, including Communist Party members and top government officials, who were potential rivals or threats to him, those who criticized his policies and even the innocent few.
Stalin held show trials for those party members who opposed him. These trials were meant for the people to see and serve as a warning to any people planning to oppose Stalin.
Hundreds of thousands of people were executed, including rival communists, political opposition, government officials, military officers and also ordinary workers and peasants, while millions were sent to labour camps where they often died.
The Great Purges had affected Russians all over as they lived in constant fear that they would be arrested and jailed, tortured or shot. It was common for ordinary citizens to accuse their neighbors or even family members of criticizing Stalin so as to project a patriotic and loyal image of them in the hope that they would not be killed. In this way, all sectors of society were affected. People of every profession and background were purged.
 

Effects of the purges

The most important political effect was, naturally, that Stalin became even more powerful than before. He had got rid of his political rivals and nobody dared to challenge his authority. Even when Russia was doing badly in World War II, his leadership was not challenged. He introduced a new constitution called the Stalin Constitution. This placed him firmly in control of the USSR.
A serious military effect was that the purges severely weakened the armed forces by removing many capable leaders who had to be replaced by inexperienced officers. This contributed greatly to the slow start that the Russians made in World War II.
In economic terms, the purges slowed down economic development, what with all the internal squabbling and fear in the country. Many industrial workers and high-end employees were killed, thus affecting worker morale and productivity.
Lastly, the purges made life extremely difficult for the people - the millions of citizens. Everyone lived in fear and terror, with the secret police patrolling the area. Apart from those sent to the labour camps where conditions were appalling and most people died or disappeared, the family and friends that they left behind suffered because they did not know what had happened to their loved ones.
 

THE STALIN CONSTITUTION

Stalin claimed this constitution was the fairest in the world. Everyone over 18 was allowed to vote every four years for a national assembly called the Supreme Soviet. This assembly met for two weeks a year.
It elected a smaller body, the Praesidium, to act on its behalf. It also chose a Council of Ministers responsible for running the country. Stalin, as Secretary or leader of the Communist Party, led this cabinet. Only members of the Communist Party could be elected to the various posts. Stalin controlled party membership, and thus chose those people who liked and supported him and his position. Although the constitution was supposed to be democratic, it is obvious that Stalin had the real power.
Stalin and the Communist Party tried to make themselves look good by recognizing the rights of the people to free medical care, to work, to education and political rights, such as freedom of speech and freedom of press. However, all these "freedoms" had to be expressed according to Stalin's and the party's wishes.
 

THE CULT OF STALIN

Throughout the 1930s propaganda was used to build up Stalin's image. Like a religious worship, a cult of Stalin was formed. Stalin was like a godlike leader to the people, praised in the newspapers, books and in films and posters. Poems published in Pravda praised his deeds, speeches exalting his skills, his modesty, his wisdom and his brilliance. People who attended these meetings were careful to applaud long and loudly, and the person who stopped first would most likely be arrested as it showed great disrespect and disloyalty to Stalin.
 

SOCIO-CULTURAL POLICIES

Education was closely regulated. It was free and compulsory, and tended to be indoctrinated as it sought to mould people into the Communist way of thinking. The secret police ensured that Communist ideology was taught.
The arts were controlled by the state which used them for propaganda purposes. Pressure was put on writers to write novels about the glorious achievements of the government. Musicians, artists and film-makers who refused to follow the state's direction were persecuted or purged.
The Russian Orthodox Church was also persecuted by Stalin. The totalitarian government could not tolerate people being loyal to other influential institutions such as the Church. Churches were closed down and religious leaders were persecuted. However, the Church continued to survive.
The 1930s was a period of terror and fear. Stalin and the Communist Party ruled the USSR with an iron fist and as a dictatorship. They may have overthrown the Tsar, but this government was in little way different.