Types of religious practices

Religion and society Religion and Society

Monism and pluralism

Monism is the metaphysical view that all is one, that all reality is subsumed under a fundamental category. Monism is to be distinguished from dualism, which holds that ultimately there are two kinds of substance, and from pluralism, which holds that ultimately there are many kinds of substance. Many systems of thought explore the mystical and spiritual elements of a monistic philosophy. Monism in religious and spiritual systems are discussed below

In Hinduism, Monism is found in the Nasadiya Sukta of the Rig-Veda, which speaks of the One being-non-being that 'breathed without breath'. The first system in Hinduism that clearly, explicated absolute monism was that of Advaita (or nondualist) Vedanta as expounded by Adi Shankaracharya. It is part of the six Hindu systems of philosophy, based on the Upanishads, and posits that the ultimate monad is a formless, ineffable Divine Ground called Brahman. Another type of monism, qualified monism, and from the school of Ramanuja or Vishishtadvaita, admits that the universe is part of God, or Narayana, a type of panentheism, but sees a plurality of souls and substances within this supreme Being.

In Buddhist philosophy, especially Madhyamaka can be compared readily to dialectical monism, but it may be more accurate to describe it as non-dualistic. Among the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhist philosophy, the ultimate nature of the world is described as emptiness, which is indistinguishable from material form. That appears to be a monist position,

Christianity strongly maintains the Creator-creature distinction, and so firmly rejects metaphysical monism. Christianity maintains that God created the universe ex nihilo and not from Himself, nor within Himself, so that the Creator is not to be confused with creation, but rather transcends it (metaphysical dualism). God is both transcendent, and immanent. Immanence is possible due to the Christian doctrines of God's omnipotentence, omnipresence and omniscience, and due to God's desire for intimate contact with his own creation. Another use of the term "monism" is in Christian anthropology to refer to the innate nature of mankind as being holistic, as opposed to bipartite and tripartite views.

While the Christian view of reality is dualistic (in regard to metaphysics) in that it holds to the Creator's transcendence of creation, it firmly rejects other types of dualism (or pluralism) such as the idea that God must compete with other (equal) powers such as Satan or Evil. Likewise, C. S. Lewis described evil as a "parasite" in Mere Christianity, as he viewed evil as something that cannot exist without good to provide it with existence. Lewis went on to argue against dualism from the basis of moral absolutism, and rejected the dualistic notion that God and Satan are opposites, arguing instead that God has no equal, hence no opposite. Lewis rather viewed Satan as the opposite of Michael the archangel.

Islam Rejects the idea of Monism as the creation and the creator cannot be equal. Islam holds that God created the universe from nothing, therefore the concept of anthropomorphism and viewing God himself as changing are forms of shirk (associating partners with God). The belief of God in Islam can be summarized by chapter 112 of the Qur'an "Say he Allaah (God) the one, Allaah is the eternal, he does not beget nor was he begotten, and there is nothing that is like him/equal to him." Muslims further assert that to say that God changes, or transforms is a contradiction, because that which is eternal cannot change for that is now a new substance that has come into existence.

Many followers of Sufism advocated monism. Most notably the 13th-century Persian poet Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi-Rumi (1207 -73) espouses monism. It is generally accepted that Sikhism is a monistic religion

sects AND cults

Religion sometimes, begins to act as a force of social change. New interpretations, of the old scriptures, rituals or dogmas in the light of sweeping changes in the society at large, provide valuable inputs. This wordly misery (persecution, oppression, slavery, etc.) of the community of believers, may force religion to downplay its otherworldliness, in a specific socio-political, socio-economic context. Most often religious sentiments and symbols are invoked, new meanings are attributed to rituals and beliefs, and in the process religion becomes a vehicle of collective mobilization, for a group of believers who would like to be ‘liberated’. This group of believers may form a sect and break away from the parent religion itself as protest.

Therefore , Sects, cults and denominations, largely speaking are manifestations of dissent within the parent religion. For example, within the universal church there are numerous protestant sects, denominations, and cults. At a certain point of history, owing to changes in the society and when religion becomes a mere stabilization agent of society, there arise groups of dissent which interrogate the dogmas, rituals and practices of the parent religion. The origin of sects can be attributed to the dissent among certain sections of clergy and the community of believers. They may feel that the parent religion has failed to articulate adequately the teachings of the founder or the prophet and has just become part of the social order. Urge for change, reconstruction and reinterpretation are at the root of sects.

These are different levels of religious organisations, viz. sects, cults.

Religion accept the social order and lend credibility to its status, whereas sects are marked by a motivation to dissociate from the existing social order, the status quo. Sects are in a sense non-conformist bodies. Sect is marked by voluntary membership, whereas membership to the religion is natural, i.e. by birth. Sects are more autonomous than the religion. Ernst Troeltsch in his famous work “The social teaching of the christian churches,” gives the idea of relgion – sect continum.

Sects generally are connected with lower classes, or at least with those elements who are opposed to state and society; they work upward from below. Sect is an idealistic community, and is small in size comparatively. Members seek direct personal fellowship. However, sects after a certain stage may themselves be institutionalised and become denominations. Put differently, denominations are sects in an advanced stage of development and adjustment to each other and secular world. Max Weber has given a technical meaning to a sect and distinguishes it from church, in terms of membership. The membership of Church (the main religion) is compulsory. But the membership to a sect is voluntary. Sufism in Islam, established deeper relationships with Sikhism, Bhakti movement in Hinduism and with Christian forms of mysticism. Similarly, Lingayat sect in Hinduism established closer relationship with Christian beliefs. Thus, inter-religious borrowings and influences could be observed in most religions across the sects.

On the other hand Cults are essentially centred around an individual living or dead. The emphasis on personal fellowship is minimal. Followers of the cult, which is a loosely knit structured form of religious expression seek personal ecstatic experience, salvation and comfort. The cult although have to be seen in the context of some form of manifest or latent protest, seldom do so openly. There is no criteria of membership

Sects Change the Social Order- A case study of Veera Saiva movement in southern India

Veera Saiva movement is a twelfth century Hindu sect, which staunchly advocated protest against the Brahminical ethos of those times. It is this strong element of protest, which makes Veera Saiva movement, a sect, though scholars are, hesitant to use the term ‘sect’ outside the western context. During the 12th century, Brahminical Hinduism dominated the social order. Rigid caste and ritual systems were the order of the day. Social intercourse between various caste groups were highly restricted and regulated, through an elaborate system of rules which inhibited inter-dining and inter-marriage. Non-Brahmins were subjected to bondage, humiliation and de-humanizing existence.

The Veera Saiva Movement was headed by Basaveshwara, who was the chief Minister and Treasurer to king Bijjala II, the Kalachuri king. The Veerasaiva movement fought a relentless struggle against the oppressive Brahminical Hindu order. It challenged the norms and values advocated and enforced by the Brahmins. The adherents of Veerasaiva movement, held Siva as the supreme God. All those who submit themselves before Siva, are equal irrespective of sex, caste and class, preached Basaveshvara. The Veerasaivites regarded untouchability as an evil and hence restrained from observing caste pollution. They rejected the doctrine of rebirth and believed in jivan-Mukthi. Work (Kayaka) was sanctified. Veerasaivites followed Bhakti Marg in their quest for ultimate reality. The Veerasaiva movement, owing to its ideology of protest against the then prevailing Brahminical Hindu order, attracted many followers, most of them from lower castes. By about 1162 A.D. the movement had gathered momentum, and Basaveshvara, Chenna Basava, Alatha Prabhu and Siddharam were leading it. The ethical code of Veerasaivas called Pancacaras, was based on egalitarian principles.

The leaders of the movement created an organisational framework, to sustain, uphold and preach the Veerasaiva doctrines. Mathas were established and a priestly order of Jangamas was created. King Bijjala and Basaveshvara came into conflict, and this led to the subsequent emergence of radicals and moderates among the Veerasaivas. Basaveshvara was a charismatic leader, and after his death the Veerasaiva movement had to rely on an extensive order of matas and priests. When the Mathas took the leadership after Basaveshvara and priests (Jangamas) replaced the lay leadership, the movement began to consolidate, evolve a wide set of rules and regulations. This Matha-priest institutions were responsible for preservation and propagation of the tenets of Veerasaivism, its canonical scriptures and literature.

After the movement, began to institionalise itself through an order of matas, a hierarchy of priests, and set of rules and regulations, it began to lose its sectarian character, particularly the ideology of protest. Veerasaivism slowly institutionalised itself into an order parallel to that of the Brahmins. Though the Veerasaiva movement aided the emergence of Lingayats (ones who wear Lingas on their body) as a political group and also propagated education among non-Brahmins, the fact is that it stands reduced as yet another caste in modern day Karnataka (India).

A Hindu sectarian movement which emerged as a protest against the dominant Brahminical Hindu order was discussed. True, the Veerasaiva movement brought a sea change in the social order of twelfth century Karnataka. But eventually it had to succumb to institutionalisation and established a parallel order. Sects emerge as protest, but in course of time they routinise and accommodate the social order.

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