Techniques of data collection

The data sources could be either contextual and primary or historical and secondary in nature.

Primary data as the name suggests is original, problem- or project-specific, collected for the specific objectives and needs to be spelt out by the researcher. The authenticity and relevance is reasonably high. The monetary and resource implications of this are quite high and sometimes a researcher might not have the resources or the time or both to go ahead with this method. In this case, the researcher can look at alternative sources of data which are economical and authentic enough to take the study forward. These include the second category of data sources—namely the secondary data.

Secondary data, as the name implies, is that information which is not topical orresearch specific and has been collected and compiled by some other researcher or investigative body. The said information is recorded and published in a structured format, and thus, is quicker to access and manage. Secondly, in most instances, unless it is a data product, it is not too expensive to collect. In comparison to the original research-centric data, secondary data can be economically and quickly collected by the decision maker in a short span of time. Also the information collected is contextual; what is primary and original for one researcher would essentially become secondary and historical for someone else.

Primary sources would include data collected by researchers using questionnaires, conducting interviews or carrying out participant observation. Secondary sources include official statistics, mass media products, diaries, letters, government reports other sociologists’ work and historical and contemporary records.

observation

Observation may be defined as ‘a process in which one or more persons monitor some real-life situation and record pertinent occurrences’. It is used to evaluate the overt behaviour of the individual in controlled and uncontrolled situations.

According to Marie Jahoda: ‘Observation method is a scientific technique to the extent that it

(a) serves a formulated research purpose,

(b) is planned systematically rather than occurring haphazardly,

(c) is systematically recorded and related to more general propositions than presented as a set of interesting curious, and

(d) is subjected to checks and controls with respect to validity, reliability, and precision much as is all other scientific evidence.’

According to Good and Hatt: ‘Observation may take many forms and is at once the most primitive and the most modern of research techniques. It includes the most casual, uncontrolled experiences as well as the most exact film records of laboratory experimentation.’

Types of Observation

Observation can be of the following types:

1. Participant observation: In the process of ‘participant observation’, the observer becomes more or less one of the group members and may actually participate in some activity or the other of the group.
2. Non-participant observation: In the process of ‘non-participant observation’, the observer takes a position where his/her presence is not felt by the group. In this type of observation, a one-way ‘vision screen’ permits the observer to see the subject but prevents the subject from seeing the observer.
3. In Mixed Participant Observation (quasi-participant observation), method the investigator either participates completely or completely remains aloof from the group which he wants to study. 

Each Observation method may also be classified into the following categories:

Natural observation: Natural observation involves observing the behaviour in a normal setting and in this type of observation, no efforts are made to bring any type of change in the behaviour of the observed.

Subjective and objective observation: All observations consist of two main components, the subject and the object. The subject refers to the observer, whereas the object refers to the activity or any type of operation that is being observed. Subjective observation involves the observation of one’s own immediate experience, whereas the observation involving an observer as an entity apart from the thing being observed is referred to as ‘objective observation’. Objective observation is also known as ‘retrospection’.

Direct and indirect observation: With the help of the direct method of observation, one comes to know how the observer is physically present, in which type of situation is he/she present and then this type of observation Self-Instructional monitors what takes place. Indirect method of observation involves studies of mechanical recording or recording by some other means like photographic or electronic. Direct observation is relatively straightforward as compared to indirect observation.

Structured and unstructured observation: Structured observation works according to a plan and involves specific information of the units that are to be observed and also about the information that is to be recorded. But in the case of unstructured observation, the observer has the freedom to note down what he/she feels is correct and unlike point of study. This approach of observation is very suitable for exploratory research.

Controlled and non-controlled observation: Controlled observations are the observations made under the influence of some external forces. Such observations rarely lead to improvement in the precision of the research results. However, these observations can be very effective if these are made to work in coordination with mechanical synchronizing devices, film recordings, etc. Non-controlled observations are made in the natural environment, and unlike to the controlled observation, these observations involve no influence or guidance of any type of external force.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation

The advantages of observation are as follows:

1. The observer through participant observation is able to participate in the group, he has access to a vast body of information.
2. The observer is able to give a context to the behaviour displayed by the members of the group, which is far better than the information received through a questionnaire and interview.
3. The observer through the method of observation gains information as to what the members of a group actually do rather than what they say, which is considered a more credible information about the behaviour.
4. The observation method like participant observation used by ethnographers takes a long period of time. This allows the researcher to dig deeper and uncover varied deep rooted aspects related to the research question.
5. Observation is far more flexible than other methods of data collection as it is not rigid and based strictly on a set and pre-defined questions. The researcher has the freedom to be more open minded.

The disadvantages of observation are as follows:

1. It is very difficult to establish the validity of observations. The problem of subjectivity is involved.
2. Many items of observation cannot be defined.
3. Observation may give undue stress to aspects of limited significance simply because they can be recorded easily, accurately and objectively.
4. Various observers observing the same event may concentrate on different aspects of a situation. The observers have little control over the physical situation.
5. It may not be feasible to classify all the events to be observed.
6. Observation is a slow and laborious process.
7. There may be lack of agreement among the observers.
8. The data to be observed may be unmanageable.
9. Observation needs competent observers and it may be difficult to find them.
10. Observation is a costly affair. It involves lot of expenses on travelling, staying at the places where the events are taking place and purchasing sophisticated equipment to help in observation.

Interview

One of the main methods of data collection is conducting interviews. It takes place as a two-way conversation between the researcher and the respondent, whereby information is gathered by asking topic related questions.

An interview method is a method in which an interviewer approaches the respondent personally and collects depth information from him.  For the purpose he establishes a rapport with him and creates an impression about his personality and also the responsibility which he has undertaken. 

Types of Interviews

The different types of interviews are as follows:

Group interview: A proper setting for group interviews requires a group of not more than 10 to 12 persons with some social, intellectual, and educational homogeneity, which ensures effective participation by all. For a full spontaneous participation of all, it is better to arrange a circular seating arrangement.

1. Diagnostic interview: Its purpose is to locate the possible causes of an individual’s problems, getting information about his past history, family relations and personal adjustment problem.
2. Clinical interview: Such an interview follows after the diagnostic interview. It is a means of introducing the patient to therapy.
3. Research interview: Research interview is aimed at getting information required by the investigator to test his/her hypothesis or solve his/her problems of historical, experimental, survey or clinical type.
4. Single interview or panel interviews: For the purpose of research, a single interviewer is usually present. In case of selection and treatment purposes, panel interviews are held.
5. Directed interview: It is structured, includes questions of the closed type and is conducted in a prepared manner.
6. Non-directive interview: It includes questions of the open-ended form and allows much freedom to the interviewee to talk freely about the problem understudy.
7. Focused interview: It aims at finding out the responses of individuals to exact events or experiences rather than on general lines of enquiry.
8. Depth interview: It is an intensive and searching kind of interview. It emphasizes certain psychological and social factors relating to attitudes, emotions or convictions.

Advantages of Interview Method

The advantages of the interview method over other techniques are as follows:

1. A well-trained interviewer can obtain more data and greater clarity by altering the interview situation. This cannot be done in a questionnaire.
2. An interview permits the research worker to follow-up leads as contrasted with the questionnaire.
3. Questionnaires are often shallow and they fail to dig deeply enough to provide a true picture of opinions and feelings. The interview situation usually permits much greater depth.
4. It is possible for a skilled interviewer to obtain significant information through motivating the subject and maintaining rapport, other methods do not permit such a situation.
5. The respondents when interviewed may reveal information of a confidential nature which they would not like to record in a questionnaire.
6. Interview technique can be used in the case of children and illiterate persons who cannot express themselves in writing. This is not possible in a questionnaire.
7. The field worker is personally present to remove any doubt or suspicion regarding the nature of enquiry or meaning of any question or term used. The answers are, therefore, not biased because of any misunderstanding. The field worker may create a friendly atmosphere for proper response. The field worker may start a discussion, and develop the interest of the respondent before showing the schedule. A right atmosphere is very conducive for getting correct replies.
8. The interviewee may disclose personal and confidential information which the interviewee would not ordinarily place in writing on paper.
9. The information gathered through interviews has been found to be fairly reliable.
10. It is possible for the interviewer to probe into attitudes, discover the origin of the problem, etc.
11. Sometimes interviews can be held at suitable intervals to trace the development of behaviour and attitudes.
12. Interviews can be used for all kinds of research methods—normative, historical, experimental, case studies and clinical studies.
13. Interview techniques provide scope for cross questioning.
14. This technique allows the interviewer to remain in command of the situation throughout the investigation.
15. Through the respondent’s incidental comments, facial expression, bodily movements, gestures, etc., an interviewer can acquire information that could not be obtained easily by other means.
16. Cross questioning by the interviewer can enable him/her to judge the sincerity, frankness and insight of the interviewee.

Disadvantages of Interview Method

The method of interview, in spite of its numerous advantages has the following limitations:

1. Very costly: It is a very costly affair. The cost per case is much higher in this method than in case of mailed questionnaires. Generally speaking, the cost per questionnaire is much less than the cost per interview. A large number of field workers may have to be engaged and trained in the work of collection of data. All this entails a lot of expenditure and a research worker with limited financial means finds it very difficult to adopt this method.
2. Biased information: The presence of the field worker while encouraging the respondent to reply, may also introduce a source of bias in the interview. At times the opinion of the respondent is influenced by the field worker and his replies may not be based on what he thinks to be correct but what he thinks the investigator wants.
3. Time consuming: It is a time consuming technique as there is no guarantee how much time each interview can take, since the questions have to be explained, interviewees have to assured and the information extracted.
4. Expertness required: It requires a high level of expertise to extract information from the interviewee who may be hesitant to part with this knowledge. Among the important qualities to be possessed by an interviewer are objectivity, insight and sensitivity.

Questionnaire

A questionnaire is ‘a tool for research, comprising a list of questions whose answers provide information about the target group, individual or event’. Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. This method was the invention of Sir Francis Galton. Questionnaire is used when factual information is desired. When opinion rather than facts are desired, an opinionative or attitude scale is used. Of course, these two purposes can be combined into one form that is usually referred to as ‘questionnaire’.

Questionnaire may be regarded as a form of interview on paper. The procedure for the construction of a questionnaire follows a pattern similar to that of the interview schedule. However, because the questionnaire is impersonal, it is all the more important to take care of its construction.

A questionnaire is a list of questions arranged in a specific way or randomly, generally in print or typed and having spaces for recording answers to the questions. It is a form which is prepared and distributed for the purpose of securing responses. Thus, a questionnaire relies heavily on the validity of the verbal reports.

According to Goode and Hatt, ‘in general, the word questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent fills himself.’

Barr, Davis and Johnson define questionnaire as, ‘questionnaire is a systematic compilation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of population from which information is desired’ and Lundberg says, ‘fundamentally, questionnaire is a set of stimuli to which literate people are exposed in order to observe their verbal behaviour under these stimuli.’

Types of Questionnaire

Commonly used questionnaires are:

1. Closed form: Questionnaire that calls for short, check-mark responses are known as closed form type or restricted type. They have highly structured answers like mark a ‘yes’ or ‘no’, write a short response or check an item from a list of suggested responses.  
2. Open form: The open form or unrestricted questionnaire requires the respondent to answer the question in their own words. The responses have greater depth as the respondents have to give reasons for their choices.
3. Pictorial form: Pictorial questionnaires contain drawings, photographs or other such material rather than written statements and the respondents are to choose answers in terms of the pictorial material. Instructions or directions can be given orally. This form is useful in working with illiterate persons, young children and persons who do not know a specific language.

Importance of Questionnaire Method

As a matter of fact, this method can be applied in a very narrow field. It can be used only if the respondents are educated and willing to cooperate. However, it is still widely used, owing to the following merits:

1. Economical: The questionnaire requires paper, printing and postage only. There is no need to visit the respondents personally or continue the study over a long period.
2. Time saving: Besides saving money, the questionnaire also saves time. Data can be collected from a large number of people within a small time frame.
3. Most reliable in special cases: It is a perfect technique of research in some cases.
4. Research in wide area: Mailed questionnaire comes very handy if the sample comprises people living at great distances.
5. Suitable in specific type of responses: The information about certain problems can be best obtained through the questionnaire method.

Limitations of the Questionnaire Method

Like all other methods, the questionnaire is also limited in value and application. This means that it cannot be used in every situation and that its conclusions are not always reliable. Key limitations of the method are as follows:

1. Limited response: As noted earlier, this method cannot be used with illiterate or semi-illiterate groups. The number of persons who cooperate and respond to the questionnaire is very small.
2. Lack of personal contact: There is very little scope of personal contact in this method. In the absence of personal contact, very little can be done to persuade the respondents to fill up the questionnaire.
3. Useless in-depth problems: If a problem requires deep and long study, it is obvious that it cannot be studied by the questionnaire method.
4. Possibility of wrong answers: A respondent may not really understand a question or may give the answer in a casual manner. In both cases, there is a strong likelihood of misleading information being given.
5. Illegibility: Some persons write so badly that it is difficult to read their handwriting.
6. Incomplete response: There are people who give answers which are so brief that the full meaning is incomprehensible.

Schedule

A schedule is a questionnaire containing a set of questions that are required to be answered to collect data about a particular item. A schedule is generally used in a face-to-face situation. The questions are listed but the interviewer or researcher personally takes them to the respondent, collects information by himself and notes that down on the questionnaire.   Thus the form of question which he has on his questionnaire does not matter much because that is for the internal consumption of the researcher. 

Goode and Hatt say that, “Schedule is the name usually applied to as set of questions asked and filled by in interviewer in face to face situation with another”.  In other words the questionnaire document which interviewer carries with himself in only a formal document and nothing beyond that.

Types of Schedule

Schedules are of 5 different types namely

Rating schedules: Rating schedules are those with whose help attitudes, opinions and preferences of the people to be interviewed can be found out. 

Document schedules: Document schedules are used in the study of case histories e.g. the study of case history of the criminals, the social status of politicians of a particular category etc.  

Evaluation schedules: Evaluation schedules are used for gathering data about institutions and agencies.  If the information collected is complex naturally and size of the questionnaire  will be big, otherwise that is bound to be small.  

Observation schedules: Observation schedules are such schedules in which the observer observes the individual as well as the group and tries to verify the information already available or hypothesis which he has prepared.

Interview-schedules: interview are the schedules which the researcher carries with him to the respondent and makes entries after getting replies from him.

Characteristics of a Good Schedule

The essential characteristics of a good schedule are as follows:

1. The information or questions included in the schedule should be accurate and should enable the respondent to understand properly the context in which the questions are being asked.
2. The schedule should be pre-arranged and structured in such a manner that the information gathered or collected should be accurate and tenable. For this, the following points must be considered:
   1. The size of the schedule should be accurate.
   2. The questions in the schedule should be understandable and definite.
   3. The questions should not contain any biased evaluation.
   4. All the questions of the schedule should be properly interlinked.
   5. The information gathered should be organized in a table so that it can be easily used for statistical analysis.

Merits of the Schedule Method

The merits of the schedule method are as follows:

1. In this method, the researcher is always there to help the respondents. So, the response rate is high as compared to other methods of data collection.
2. The presence of the researcher not only removes doubts present in the mind of the respondent, but also avoids false replies from the respondent due to fear of cross-checking.
3. In this method, there is personal contact between the researcher and the respondent. Thus, the data can be collected easily and can also be relied upon.
4. This method helps to better understand the personality, living conditions and values of the respondents.
5. It is easy for the researcher to detect and rectify defects in the schedule during sampling.

Limitations of the Schedule Method

The limitations of this method are as follows:

1. It is a costly and time-consuming method.
2. It requires well-trained and experienced field workers for conducting interviews of the respondents.
3. Sometimes, the respondent may not be able to speak out due to the physical presence of the researcher.
4. If the field of research is dispersed, it becomes difficult to organize the various activities of the research.

Difference between Questionnaire and Schedule

When you work with questionnaires and schedules, you will observe that there are several similarities between the two. However, there are prominent differences also, which are as follows:

1. A questionnaire is mostly sent by the interviewer to the interviewee by mail and is filled by the interviewee, whereas a schedule is filled by the interviewer at the time of interview.
2. Data collection through a questionnaire is cheaper as compared to a schedule, as money is spent only in preparing the schedules and mailing them. In the schedule method, extra money is spent on appointing interviewers and imparting training to them.
3. In the case of a questionnaire, response is generally low because many people do not respond. On the other hand, response is high in the case of schedules since the interviewer fills them at the time of the interview.
4. The identity of the respondent is not always clear in the case of a questionnaire, whereas in the case of schedules, the identity of the interviewee or respondent is known.
5. The questionnaire method is time consuming as the respondent may not return the questionnaire in time. There is no such problem with the schedule method because the schedule is filled at the time of the interview.
6. The questionnaire method does not allow personal contact with the respondent but the schedule method does.
7. The questionnaire method is useful only if the respondent is literate, while in the case of a schedule, it is not necessary for the interviewee to be literate.
8. The risk of incomplete and incorrect information is more in a questionnaire, while in a schedule, the information collected is complete and more accurate.

Surveys

Survey methods are widely used gathering scientific information. It involves collection of data by asking questions and recording people’s answers to them. They are used for various purposes on frequent goal of this kind of research is to estimate population characteristics. For example the goal of survey might be to determine the percentage of people who hold supporting of opposing positions on particular social issues, such as provision of reservation for women in job. The census and public opinion done by various agencies are good examples of surveys.

Surveys can also be used to test hypotheses about the relationships among variable. One may try to find out the effect of some event on people’s behaviour. For example surveys have been conducted after the earth quack at Bhuj in Gujarat to find out the impact of earthquake on people’s lives.

In undertaking surveys the researcher defines the study population and draws the sample. The sample must be representative of the population. Researcher use different procedures of sampling. They can use random sampling in which every member of the population has a equal and independent chance of being included in the sample. Usually the researcher use stratified random sampling in which two or more sub samples are represented according to some predetermined proportion as they exist in the population. Some times groups are selected by using clusters or groupings from a larger population. This is known as cluster sampling. The sample size is also determined because the ability to generalise depends on the sample size used in the survey.

Depending upon the ways of collecting data survey methods can be classified into different categories namely personal interview, mail questionnaire, telephone survey, internet survey, web survey, etc.

Advantages:

1. Survey methods have wide scope. In other words through survey method a great deal of information can be obtained by studying the larger population
2. It is more accurate. As Kerlinger (1986) has put it.” The accuracy of properly drawn samples is frequently surprising, even to experts in the field. A sample of 600 to 700 individuals or families can give a remarkably accurate portrait of a community its values attitudes and beliefs.
3. Survey methods has been frequently used in almost all the social sciences. Hence the method has inter-disciplinary value. In fact such researches provide raw materials for a vast increasing “ gross disciplinary research” (Cambell & Katona,1953).
4. Survey method is considered a very important and indispensable tool for studying social attitudes, beliefs, values etc. with accuracy at the economic rate.

Disadvantages:

1. Survey methods remains at the surface and it does not penetrate into the depth of the problem being investigated.
2. Survey method are time consuming, and demand a good amount of expenditure.
3. Although it is true that survey research is accurate, it is still subject to sampling errors. In survey research there is always the probability of one chances in a twenty or hundred with an error, more serious than minor fluctuation of a chance, may occur and distort the validity of the result obtained.
4. Survey method demands expertise, research knowledge and sophistication on the part of the researcher. In other words the researcher must know the techniques of sampling, questionnaire construction, interviewing and analysis of data