Season	Period	Sowing Period	Harvesting Period	Principal Crops
Kharif	May to middle of October	General at the beginning of the S. W. Monsoon, viz., May to July	At the end of the S.W. Monsoon – September to October (in some cases it may continue till November)	Jowar, bajra, maize, millets, moong, urd, arhar, ragi, Sugarcane, paddy in Punjab
Zaid Kharif	August to January	August to September	December to January	Rice, mustard, rape seed, til, cotton, groundnut, toria, etc.
Rabi	Middle of October of middle of April	At the beginning of the retreating monsoon-October to December	February to April (in some cases it may continue till May)	Wheat, barley, gram, linseed, mustard, peas, and beans, potatoes, etc.
Zaid Rabi	Beginning of February of beginning of May.	February to March	Middle of April to May (in some case it may continue upto June)	Water melons, melons, Cucumbers, toria, summer, vegetables, jowar, and maize and fodder.

Kharif or Rain Crops

The crops are sown during May-July and are harvested during September to October and sometimes even in November. Main crops are paddy, jowar, bajra, jute, sugarcane and pulses.

Zaid Kharif Crops

These are sown during August-September and harvested during December-January, Main crops are cotton, rice, jowar, mustard, etc.

Rabi or Winter Crops

These are sown from October to December and harvested from February to April and sometimes even in May. Major crops are wheat, gram, peas, potato and pulses.

Zaid Rabi Crops

These short duration crops are sown at the beginning of the summer season (February to March) and harvested during April-May and continue up to June in some cases. Main crops are irrigated fodder crops for animals and vegetables, water-melons, etc. Moong is now a new addition to this list

Types of cultivation

Due to different physical, climatic and soil conditions, different types of agriculture practiced in India.

Wet Cultivation

It is practiced in the areas with average rainfall of more than 200 cm. The major areas are Middle and Eastern Himalayan region. South Bengal, Malabar coast, Assam, Nagaland and adjoining States. The crops like sugarcane, rice, jute, etc., are grown in these regions without irrigation.

Humid Cultivation

Areas with black soil and rainfall of more than 100 cm practice Humid Farming. At least two crops are grown in a year in the areas of Eastern Gangetic plain, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Assam and Madhya Pradesh.

Irrigated Cultivation

The areas with rainfall between 50 and 100 cm in Punjab, Haryana, Western Gangetic plain, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, etc. growing wheat, rice, sugarcane, etc. fall in this category of farming.

Dryland farming

• Dryland agriculture is a type of farming practiced in arid and semi-arid areas without irrigation facilities.
• The cultivation of crop occurs entirely under natural rainfall by planting drought-resistant crops and conserving the natural moisture of the soil.
• It involves efficient system of soil and crop management in the regions of low and uneven distributed rainfall.

Significance of Dryland agriculture in India: -

• The total land area of India is 329 million hectares of which 144 million hectares is arable land, out of this 94 million hectares fall under dry lands constituting 65% of dryland and rainfed area produce 40% of the total food grains that feeds 40% of the total population.
• Almost 80% of maize and Jowar, 90% of Bajra and approximately 95% of pulses and 75% of oilseeds are obtained from dryland agriculture. In addition to these, 70% of cotton is produced through dryland agriculture. Dryland areas also contribute significantly to wheat (33%) and paddy (66%) production.  Therefore, Drylands contribute immensely in the food security of the country.
• The biggest employer in our country, the cotton mills are fed by raw cotton grown mostly in dryland areas. Increasing production of cotton subsequently leads to increase in exports of cotton goods. The improvement of production of oilseeds in these regions will save valuable foreign exchange reserves. By enhancing the productivity of crops like jowar, bajra and ragi which are mainly grown in dryland farming would increase the nutrient consumption levels of our nation.
• More than 75% of the farmers engaged in dry farming are small and marginal. Therefore, improvement in dry farming would raise the economic status of farmers thus helping in poverty alleviation.
• These areas have potential for fodder production to feed the cattle population which is an integral component of farming practice of this region.
• Providing importance to these areas can solve the problems of pulses, oilseeds and cotton. The dryland areas have also tremendous potentiality of increased food grain production. Thus enhanced agricultural production in these areas would boost the agriculture based economy of India. Moreover, it would also be helpful in eliminating the problem of hunger and malnutrition prevailed in below poverty line society of the country.
• Dryland farming is highly important to ensure the economic stability of a region . In the absence of this farming practice, vast tracts of lands in the world would be left barren and unproductive therefore populations residing in the arid areas of the world would have to be completely dependent on external sources of food to meet their dietary needs. This would adversely impact a nation’s economy as self-sufficiency, in terms of production of food grains to feed the country’s population, would be lost.
• Today, as the effects of climate change grips the world and the problem of desertification intensifies, more farmers across the world are planning to utilize the methods of dryland farming to cultivate their own crop fields . In the near future, many arable lands of today might have to completely depend upon dryland farming methods to sustain their agricultural outputs.

Challenges of Drylands:

• In dryland areas the rainfall is inadequate and highly variable which results in uncertain crop yields. The distribution of rainfall during the crop period is uneven, receiving high amount of rain when it is not required and lack of it when crop need it.
• Soils of the drylands are not only dry but also deficient in macronutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous.
• The temperature in dryland varies greatly. During the period of moisture stress and drought, the temperatures accelerate the crop development resulting into forced maturity. Chilling or frost injury at flowering results in poor grain setting and deteriorates the grain quality.
• Dryland areas suffer from various process of soil degradation especially soil erosion due to excess of evaporation .
• Small size of land holdings (less than 2 hectares) usually fragmented and scattered, lack of market facilities, frequent crop failure, poor economic condition and other socio-economic problem related to drylands.
• Extremely poor economic condition of farmers, lack of infrastructure to boost production. Like Proper financial availability to purchase input , Extension education , Dryland Farming Technology and Proper marketing and pricing policy .

Shifting or Jhuming Cultivation

known as Jhum in Assam, Ponam in Kerala, Podu in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa, bewar, masham, penda and beera in different parts of Madhya Pradesh, shifting cultivation is practised by tribal people over an estimated area of about 54 lakh hectares, about 20 lakh hectares being  cleared by these (totaling more than 100 tribes) by felling trees and burning the forests every year. The cleared areas are cultivated under very crude and extravagant methods for 2-3 years and then abandoned for 5-15 years and then again cleared up in most cases, though new clearings area made if the dense twisted scrub of the abandoned form is found more difficult. Dry paddy, buck wheat, maize, small millets and sometimes even tobacco and sugarcane are grown on the burnt-ever clearings which are abandoned when fertility dwindles. Shifting cultivation is predominant in the forest areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. This reckless way of exploiting rich forests soils is responsible for large scale unauthorized removal of forests and soil erosion on hill slopes and for causing floods and the devastation due to them in the plains below. A concentrated and planned effort, therefore, is necessary to put a check on this destruction of national wealth.

Terrace Cultivation

This is common in the hilly areas. Fields are prepared on the slopes in the form of terraces along the contour lines to protect the soil from erosion. Wheat, rice, potato and tea are the main crops.

Land Use

India has made a mark in agricultural production in the years since Independence, but is yet to make a mark in the area of population control though it seems poised for a demographic change. Such a change is essential for the success of national economic planning, for food self-sufficiency and for better standard of living. And this should come about soon, for the pressure on land is increasing

Almost half the arable of the world (1371.6 million hectares totally in 1983) is in four countries, namely the USSR (227.5 million ha), USA 187.8 m ha), India (164.9 m ha) and China (97.5 m ha). India has done more on the farm front. What China is able to do, namely sustain 21% of the world’s population with only 7% of the world’s arable land at its command, whereas we have 12% of the world’s arable land and 18% of the world’s population to be sustained. This is because its irrigated land is double that of India. Nevertheless, agriculture, which accounts for about 15.7 per cent of India’s national income, has laid sound foundations on which superstructure of diversified and Balanced economy can be built.

According the latest land use figures there has been some increase in net sown area. Nearly 23 million hectares have been added since Independence. This figure is by no means small and is often at the cost of pastures and forests which are as important as arable land it not more for balanced and healthful ecology as well as self-contained national economy. They have to supply our animal wealth, provide seclusion to wild life and maintain to its full the existing bio-diversity - a trust of the unborn generations to whom the country rightly belongs. It constitutes 47.7 per cent of the total land area of which data are available. Another 1.3% of the land is under fruit trees. Nearly 5% of the land falls in the category of fallow land which is not cultivated every year but once in two to three years. This is a marginal land of very low fertility and generally suffers from erosion. This percentage however has come down to 5 from the earlier figure of 7 percent. This is perhaps due to greater use of manures and fertilizers and adoption of new techniques to conserve moisture in such lands.

The area classified as cultivable waste has remained stationary at 6.4% for several decades. This needs to be and can be brought under cultivation. The land under permanent pastures is miserably low and indicates tremendous population pressure on our land. Also it must go to the credit of our farmers that with so little a land under pastures they have the largest number of cattle. They are reared mainly on husk, grain chart, farm waste and a few fodder crops. This indeed is the most economic way to have a large number of drought animals and bovine or milch cattle. Some areas classified under forests are also used. Some areas  classified under forests are also used for cattle grazing.

Of the total geographical area of India, 328.7 m hectares, 142 m hectares is the net cultivated area. The states have widely varying shares of this cultivated area. Madhya Pradesh has the largest net sown area, 18.8 m ha, which is 42.4 per cent of its total area. It is followed by Maharashtra (183 m ha : 59 per cent, Uttar Pradesh (17.3 m ha : 58 per cent) Rajasthan (15.6 m h ; 45.6 per cent). Smaller states like Punjab (4.2 m ha sown) and Haryana (3.7 m ha sown) have almost 84.0 per cent of their land under cultivation. These two states  have by far, the largest proportion of net sown area in any state in the country.

With the exception of Orissa and Bihar all the 15 major states have larger areas under conventional agriculture use than under other uses. For instance, in Punjab and Haryana, the net area sown is in excess of 80 per cent and in West Bengal it is about 63 per cent. In five states it is between 50 to 60 per cent.

In the smaller states, however, forest areas far exceed the proportion of net sown area to geographical area, the lowest being Manipur (6.2 per cent) and the highest Tripura (23.5%). These states are mostly hilly & forested.

Characteristic Features of Indian Agriculture

Indian agriculture is basically a Third World intensive subsistence type of agriculture. The characteristic features of Indian Agriculture are :

Land Use Pattern. Out of 328 million hectares total land, at least 45% area is devoted to agriculture. At present 180 million hectares of land is under multiple cropping.

Relative importance of different crops. Nearly 72.3% agricultural land is devoted for food grain production and remaining 27.7% land is used for the production of other crops considering the total volume of production and area under cultivation, rice secures the prime position. More than 20% land may be classified as rice land. In order of importance wheat is close behind rice, taking more  than 10% of the cultivable land, cash crops like cotton, sugarcane & jute are the other dominant agricultural products.

Average Size of Land Holdings Tiny & uneconomic land holdings are characteristic feature. The important reasons for this are high density of population, high degree of dependence on agriculture &division of land among successors according to the Hindu law. The average size of agricultural land units in USA is over 148 acres, in Denmark it is 42 acres, in England it is more than 18 acres while in India it is only 5.7 acres. There is lot of disparity in different size of existing land holdings. Even less than 1 acre, land is not uncommon.

Pattern of Land Ownership There is a concentration of a large amount of land ownership to a small percentage of population. Only 11% cultivators occupy 62% of the arable land. On the other hand at least 21% of farmers still remain landless or merely a marginal farmer.

Fragmentation & Isolation of Land Holdings Repeated division of land after the death of owner results in fragmentation of land &land holdings become tiny. Some of the land holdings are so small, that these are uneconomic for cultivation now.

Tenancy System The Permanent Settlement System, promulgated under British rule, secured the land ownership permanently to a handful of people. This semi-feudal system in the agrarian sector created a large number of absentee landlords. In this system farmers, those who were engaged in production were not interested to develop the quality of land.

Disguised Unemployment. The number of agricultural labour in India is the highest in the world on an average 25% of the people may be classified as marginal farmers & agricultural laborers. The major part of the year they remain jobless, particularly in lean season. These disguised unemployed workers constitute the bulk of the labour force.

Subsistence Level of Production & Heavy Dependence on Agriculture Nearly 45% of the products are consumed by cultivators themselves. At least 16% is given to Government as revenue. 7% is to be kept as seed & only 32% may be regard as marketable surplus. This leads to lack of liquid money with farmers and hence low investment. Low investment makes it difficult to achieve more surplus production. Here lies the vicious circle of poverty in rural India.

Low Production Despite all efforts since independence, average agricultural production per  acre is still one of the lowest in the world. Production per acre in India is one-fourth of USA & Canada. Even production in China is twice that of India.

The Green Revolution

The Green Revolution is a term used to describe efforts for a big increase in food production in short space of time Under the “New Strategy in Indian Agriculture”, the Green Revolution was introduced in India since mid-sixties. Since then, Indian agriculture has undergone a sea-change both in qualitative & quantitative ways. The Green Revolution was a package deal and included the following measures:-

i)  Introduction of High Yielding Variety seeds (H.Y.V.)

ii) New measures to exploit water resources.

iii) Enhancement and overhauling of existing irrigation potential.

iv) Increasing the intensity of farming & introduction of multiple cropping.

v) Creation of additional capacity of produce fertilizer, pesticides & insecticides.

vi) Adaptation of high technology and its flow towards remote areas.

Following the adaptation of these measures, manifold improvements have taken place. Agriculture production outpaced the population growth & India became self-sufficient in foodgrain production. This achievement helped India to save precious foreign currency as food imports from U.S.A. under PL-480 came to an halt.

AGRICULTURAL REGIONALISATION

An agricultural region can be defined as a region having homogeneity in farming practice, crops produced & crop association. Though Agricultural regions based on crop regions such as the Corn belt or cotton belt in the United States have not developed in India, still we can divide India into following seven agricultural regions based on predominance of crops and crop associations.

Fruits & Vegetables Region

• Extends from Kashmir to Assam.
• Rainfall 200 cm in the east to less than 60 cm in the northwest.
• Apple, peach, cherries, plum, apricot, oranges etc. are important fruits.
• rice, maize, ragi, potatoes, chilies & vegetables are also produced.

Rice - Jute  - Tea Region

• includes Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, West Bengal, Meghalya, Orissa, terai region of U.P., northern & eastern parts of Bihar.
• characterized by vast lowlands, river deltas, valleys, which contain thick alluvial deposits.
• rainfall varies from 160 cm to 250 cm.
• rice is  the predominant crop because of fertile alluvial soil, high rainfall & higher summer temperatures.

Wheat & Sugarcane Region

• includes northern Bihar, Punjab, U.P., Haryana, Western M.P. & north-eastern Rajasthan.
• mostly alluvial soil with patches of black & red soils.
• moderate rainfall
• wheat & sugarcane are most important crops
• Artifical irrigation has led to cultivation of rice leading to the prevalence of wheat-rice monoculture.

Millets & Oilseeds Region

• includes Karnataka plateau, parts of T.N., southern Andhra Pradesh & eastern Kerala.
• the region is characterized by poor soils, broken topography & less rainfall (75 cm - 125 cm).
• millets grown are bajra, ragi & jowar.
• oil seeds grown are groundnut, castor etc.

Maize & Coarse Crop Region

• rainfall is less than 50 cm
• agriculture is possible with irrigation facilities.
• crops include maize, ragi, wheat, cotton, bajra, pulses etc.

Cotton Region

• includes mostly Deccan Trap.
• black cotton soils are present in the river valleys.
• rainfall 75 cm - 100 cm because it is a rain shadow area.
• besides being the main cotton belt, it also grows jowar, bajra, gram, sugarcane, wheat etc.

Spices & Plantation Crop Region

• includes coastal plains & Andaman & Nicobar Islands & Lakshadweep& Minicoy islands.
• rainfall is heavy (more than 250 cm).
• coffee, rubber, pepper, cardamom are main crops and rice is an important food crop.

India's Position in the World in the Production of Fruits and Vegetable Crops	Fruit trees/Vegetable Crops
First Rank	Milk, Cashew nuts, Tea, Ginger, Turmeric & Black Pepper, Banana, Sapota, Mango, Puises, Pomegranate, Grapes, Caulïflower, Jute
Second Rank	Wheat, Rice, Sugar, Groundnut, Inland Fish, Fruits & Vegetabies, Brinjal, Onion
Third Rank	Tobacco, Egg, Potato, Total Cereals, Cabbage, Coconut, Cotton,

Various Acts/Orders/Rules Related to Agriculture

• Destructive Insects and -Pests Act, 1914
• Agricultural Produce Grading & Marketing Act, 1937 (Amended in 1986)
• Prévention of Food Adultération Act - 1954
• Insecticides Act, 1968
• The Seed Act, 1966
• Meat Food Products Order, 1973
• The Dangerous Machines (Régulation) Act, 1983
• Fertilizer (Control) Order, 1985
• Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992
• Plant Quarentine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003
• Organic Agricultural Produce Grading & Marketing Rules, 2009

Principal Crops : Their Season and Duration
Crop	Season
Rice	Winter, Autumn, Summer
Wheat	Rabi
Jowar	Kharif, Rabi, Zaid Kharif
Bajra	Kharif
Maize	Kharif
Ragi	Kharif
Barley	Rabi
Gram	Rabi
Sugarcane	Perennial
Seasame	Kharif, Rabi
Groundnut	Kharif early, Kharif late
Rapeseed and mustard	Rabi, Zaid rabi
Linseed	Rabi
Castor	Kharif early
Cotton	Kharif early, Kharif late
Tobacco	Kharif
Jute	Kharif

Animal Husbandry in India

The National Dairy Development Board was established in 1965 under the auspices of Operation Flood at Anand, in Gujarat, to promote, plan, and organize dairy development through cooperatives; to provide consultations; and to set up dairy plants, which were then turned over to the cooperatives.

Today, India has the world’s largest dairy herd (composed of cows and buffaloes), at over 300 million strong, and stands first in milk production, with 146.3 million tonnes of milk produced in 2014¬2415. India is also the fifth largest egg-producer in the world, at over 550 million eggs being produced every day or 90 billion eggs for the year 2014-15, and the world’s sixth largest producer of poultry meat.

Particular	1951	2003	2007	Highest in the state	India’s
	(Million	(Million	(Million		Rank
	Numbers)	Numbers)	Numbers)
Cattle	155.3	185.2	199.08	MP	First
Buffalo	43.4	97.9	105.34	UP	First
Sheep	39.1	61.5	71.56	AP	Third
Goat	47.2	124.4	140.54	Raj	First
Horse/Ponies	1.5	0.8	0.61	J & K	-
Donkey	1.3	0.65	0.44	Raj	-
Camel	0.6	0.6	0.52	Raj	Sixth
Pig	4.4	13.5	11.13	Assam	Seventeenth
Poultry Bird	73.5	489	648.88	TN	Fifth

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

While the majority of India's animal products are consumed domestically, exports are growing. India is the top global exporter of buffalo meat, and is also the fourth largest exporter of soybean meal, an important ingredient in commercial feed for farmed animals.

Animal Husbandry

It also provides valuable animal proteins through milk, meat and eggs and also products of mass consumption like wool, hides and skins for the growing needs of various industries. Animal wastes are used as biomass for production of energy as direct burning or bio-gas and as valuable farm yard manure. Thus, the developmental schemes of animal husbandry are of great importance for providing employment and uplifting the rural poor.

Cattle

The largest number of cattle are found in M.P. and U.P., followed by Bihar and Maharashtra. Cattle are used both as milch and as draught animals. A calf matures in about 3 years. There are 26 well-defined breeds of cattle in India. Important among these are (names of states where they are largely found are given within brackets): Gir (Gujarat), Haryana (Haryana & Delhi),  Kangayam (Tamil Nadu), Kankrej (Rajasthan, Gujarat), Mewati (U.P.) Ongole (A.P.), Tharparkar, Red Sindhi and Sahiwal originally from Pakistan), Shri (West Bengal and Sikkim) etc. Some exotic breeds have also been introduced in India, e.g. Jersey, Holstein-Friesian, Brown-Swiss, etc. The fat content of cow’s milk is about 4.9%. The average yield is about 220 kg. per annum. The average gestation period is 280 days. 

Buffaloes

Buffaloes/are mainly bred for milk. There are six important breeds of buffaloes in India namely Jafrarbadi, Mehsna and Surti (all from Gujarat), Murrah (Punjab - originally from Pakistan). Maximum number of buffaloes are found in U.P. followed by A.P., and M.P. The fat content of buffalo’s milk is about 7.4%. The yield is nearly three times that of cows and the average gestation period is about 315 days.

Sheep 

With 48 million sheep India stands sixth in Sheep population in the world, it produces only 40,000 tonnes of wool around 1% of the total wool production. Indian sheep are thus poor producers of wool less than 1 kg per sheep. The maximum number of sheep are found in Rajasthan, followed by A.P. and Karnataka. The average gestation period of sheep is 150 days. Sheep development program concentrates on improving the quality and quantity of wool through cross-breeding. Over 20,000 marina sheep have been imported for this purpose. A Central Sheep Breeding Farm has been set up at Hissar (Haryana) for this purpose. The foreign breeds being used for upgrading the local stock are: Ram Buillet, Russian Marina, Corriedale etc.

Goats

India stands first in the world accounting for one-sixth of goat population. The largest number of goats are found in Rajasthan, followed by Bihar, U.P., and M.P. The goat is popularly known as the poor man’s cow. It is hardy and cheap to maintain. It provides a variety of commercially useful articles. Its milk is nourishing and is considered specially useful for children and invalids. Its meat is preferred by many to mutton. Its skin is used for making shoes and gloves and its intestines are used for making catgut. The important local varieties or goals are : Kashmiri, Pashmina, Jamnapari, Marwari, Malaban, Bengali etc. The main foreign breeds imported for improving the local stock are Alpine, Anglo-Mubian, Angora, Saanen and Togganberg. The average gestation period of goat is 151 days.

Poultry

Indian poultry includes several kinds of birds, such as fowls, guinese fowls, ducks, turkey, geese, etc. of these domestic fowls and to some extent ducks are common Andhra Pradesh has the largest number of poultry followed by West Bengal, Bihar and Tamil Nadu. Foreign breeds being used either for pure breeding or cross breeding are : Black Minorca, White Lenghorn, Rhode - Island Red, etc. The Central Poultry Breeding Farm set up at bangalore has evolved a superior strain called “HH 260” which is capable of laying 260 eggs per year. It takes about three weeks or 21 days for chicks to hatch out of eggs. India has emerged as world’s fifth biggest producer of eggs.

Pastoral Farming

Agricultural is not only a science and an art of cultivating the soil and raising of crops but it also includes rearing of livestock. It is widely believed that domestication of animals is as old as farming, if not more. In India pastoral farming is very important since times of immemorial Today India has the largest head of cattle in the world - one sixth of the world’s total and half of the buffaloes, the most prized bovine animal in India. It is, however, rightly pointed out that the quality of our milk cattle is poor and their milk yield is very low. Nonetheless draught and milch animals play a very important role both in Indian life and economy. Farms, Farm animals and Farmers together form a farming ecosystem in India. What is not realized is that with only 10% of the total investment in agriculture, the animal sector contributes as much as 31% of the total agricultural incomes.

Operation Flood

Operation Food, the world's largest integrated dairy development program, attempted to establish linkages between rural milk producers and urban consumers by organizing farmer-owned and -managed dairy cooperative societies. In the early 1990s, the program was in its third phase and was receiving financial assistance from the World Bank and commodity assistance from the European Economic Community. At that time, India had more than 64 000 dairy cooperative societies, with close to 7.7 million members These coopératives established a daily processing capacity of 15.5 million liters of whole milk and 727 tons of milk powder.

ICAR

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi India is an autonomous organization under the Department of Agricultural Research and Education, Ministry of Agriculture government of India. Formerly known as the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, it was established in 1929 as a registered society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 in pursuance to the report of the Royal Commission on Agriculture ICAR has its headquarters at New Delhi.

The Council is the apex body for coordinating, guiding and managing research and education in agriculture including horticulture, fisheries and animal sciences in the country. It has 99 ICAR institutes and 53 agricultural universities spread across the country.

The ICAR has played a role in enabling the country to increase the production of food grains by four, horticultural crops by six fish by nine (marine five and inland 17, milk six times and eggs 27 times since 1950.

Crop Distribution

Wheat (Triticum spp.)

Varieties – Kalyan Sona 227, medium long duratrion; Sonalica 308, short duration, Choti Lerma, Safed Lerma and Sharbati Sonera).

Climatic Condition	Soil	Distribution
Cool and moist climate during growing period and dry warm climate during harvest. Temp.–(winter) 100 to 150C (Summer) 210 to 260C. Rainfall – 15 to 75 cm. Light winter showers increase the yields.	Well drained loams and clayey loams-ideal, also grown in sandy loams, in black and alluvial soils.	Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

Rice

Rice (Oryza Sativa) (IR-8, IR-5, IR-20, IR-22, Hansa, Padma, Karuna, Krishna, Kauvery, Annpurna)           

Temp. –100 to 210C during sowing period, 350 to 370C during harvest. Rainfall-100 to 200 cm.

Heavy clay and clay loams. Also grown in alluvial, red and lateritic soils.

Northeastern region-Assam,  West Bengal, South Bihar, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura and Orissa. Northern Region-Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana and western U.P. Central Region-madhya Pradesh, parts of Andhra Pradesh (Telangana) and Karnataka. Southern Region – Deltaic Tracts of the Godavari, Krishna, Kauvery and Tambraparni and non-deltaic rain fed areas of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

Barley (Hardeum Vulgare)

Temp. –100 to 150C Rainfall – 75 to 100 cm.

Light clay and alluvium soil (Generally grown on less fertile soil).

Bihar, North eastern U.P., Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan.

Maize (American Corn) Ganga 101, Ganga 3, Ganga White 3, Deccan, Himalaya 123, Vikram, Sona, Jawahar

Temp. –210C to 250C Rainfall – below 75cm.

Grown on less fertile soil.

U.P., Bihar, Rajasthan, M.P., Punjab, J & K, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. Other producers – Orissa, Karnataka and West Bengal.

Jowar (Sorghum Vulgare) or Pearl Millet. HYV – CSV – 1 to CSV-7

Temp- 270 to 320C Rainfall – 30 to 100 cm Excessive moisture or prolonged doughts are harmful.

Black clayey loams- ideal but grown in wide variety soils ranging from heavy and light alluvium to red, grey, and yellow loams and even sandy loams.

Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, M.P., Karnataka, Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Bajra (Peninsetum Typhoides) Hybrid varieties – Co1, Co2, HB3, HB4, Pusa Moti

Temp. –250 to 300C Rainfall – 50 to 100 cm

Red light black and sandy loams and also well-drained alluvial loams.

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and U.P. Others – Maharashtra, Orissa, and Bihar.

Ragi (Finger Millet or Buck Wheat)

Temp. – 200 to 300C Rainfall – 50 to 100cm

Red light black and sandy loams and also well-drained alluvial loams.

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and U.P. Others-Maharashtra, Orissa, and Bihar.

Gram (Bengal Gram)

Grown mostly in drier areas with wide range of climatic conditions. Rainfall – 40 to 50 cm.

Acidic soil without Calcium and rich in Iron and Manganese, well drained, deep and friable loam.

Northeast India-Darjeeling in West Bengal, Sadiya in Assam, Brahmaputra valley, Surma valley, Dooars in the Himalayan foothills. North India – Terai region in U.P., Hiamchal Pradesh, Bihar. South-West India – Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka tea areas are located in Nilgiris, Cardamom, Palni and Anamalai hills.

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea)

Temp. 200 to 250C Rainfall – 75 to 85 cm Dry weather is required during harvesting period.

Light soil, well-drained sandy loams rich in organic matter.

Karnataka, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, M.P., Punjab, U.P.

Cotton (Gossypium spp.)

Temp. – 210 to 300C Rainfall – 50 to 75 cm

Black cotton soil (regur) and also mixed red and black soil.

Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, U.P., Bihar and Rajasthan.

Jute (Corchorus spp.)

Temp. – above 260C Rainfall – above 150 cm Average humidity – 80 to 90%

Alluvial soil, also grown in clayey and sandy soil.

West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra and Kerala (coastal areas).

Potato (Solanum tuberosum) Varieties – Phulwa, Red Round, Gola, Magnum Bonnum, Shba.

It is grown up to an elevation of 2000 m. It cannot withstand heavy rainfall.

Loam and sandy soil.

Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Others- Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnatak, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Punjab.

Mango (Mangifera indica) Varieties – Malda, Alphonso, Langra, Dusheri, Fazli, Chausa, Bambai

It is grown up to an altitude of 100 m. Temp. – 400 to 1100F. Rainfall – 75 to 190 cm Wind storms at maturity and frosts at flowering damage the crop.

Deep alluvial soils are most suited, also grown in laterite, red and black soils.

Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh.

Coconut (Cocus nucifeara)

High temperature and sufficient rainfall.

Light well-drained soil.

Kerala, Karnatak, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Assam, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Goa, Daman and Diu, Andaman Nicobar.

Coffee (Coffea arabica)

Temp. – 15 to 280C Rainfall – 150 to 200 cm, well distributed throughout the year. Prolonged drought damages the crop.

Rich well-drained friable loams.

Karnataka, Kerala (Western Ghats and Nilgiris).

Rubber (Hevea Brasiliensis)

Temp.  Above 210C Rainfall – 300 to 400 cm Extreme dry condition damages the crop.

Rich well-drained soil varying from laterite to fine alluvium or clayey loams.

Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, Assam, West Bengal and Andaman Nicobar.

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)

Temp. – 20 to 260C. Rainfall – 150 cm Frost damages the crop and short cool dry winter season during ripening and harvesting in good for the crop. Sea winds increase the yield.

Deep, rich, loamy soils are ideal ; black soil is also suitable.

Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

Tobacco

Temp. –160 to 400C Rainfall –  50 cm Rainfall during maturity of leaves damages the crop.

Well-drained, friable, sandy loam, not too rich in organic matter but rich in mineral salts.

West Bengal, Bihar, U.P., Punjab, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh.

 

CROPPING PATTERN IN INDIA

Cropping activities go on all the year-round in India, provided water is available for crops. In northern India, there are two distinct seasons, Kharif (July to October), and Rabi (October to March). Crops grown between March and June are known as Zaid. In some parts of the country, there are no such distinct seasons, but there they have their own classification of seasons. The land may be occupied by one crop during one season (mono-cropping), or by two crops (double-cropping) which may be grown in a year in sequence. Of late, the trend is even more than two crops (multiple-cropping) in a year.

The most important element of farming in India is the production of grains and the dominant food-chain is grain man. On this basis, the country may be divided broadly into five agricultural regions.

• The rice region extending from the eastern part to include a very large part of the northeastern and the south-eastern India, with another strip along the western coast.
• The wheat region, occupying most of the northern, western and central India.
• The millet-sorghum region, comprising Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and the Deccan Plateau in the centre of the Indian Peninsula.
• The temperate Himalayan region of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh and some adjoining areas. Here potatoes are as important as cereal crops (which are mainly maize and rice), and the tree-fruits form a large part of agricultural production.
• The plantation crops region of Assam and the hills of southern India where good quality tea is produced. There is an important production of high-quality coffee in the hills of the western peninsular India. Rubber is mostly grown in Kerala and parts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. There are some large estates, but most of the growers would come under the category of small holders. Sugarcane, which in many countries is a plantation crop, is almost entirely grown by small holders in India.

Kharif Season Cropping Patterns

The rice-based cropping patterns: Rice is grown in the high-rainfall area or in areas where supplemental irrigation is available to ensure good yields. If the crop has to depend solely on rainfall, it requires not less than 30 cm per month of rainfall over the entire growing period. However, only 9 per cent of the area in the country comes under this category, and it lies in the eastern parts. Nearly 45 per cent of the total rice area in India receives 30 cm per month of rainfall during at least two months (July and August) of the south-westerly monsoon and much less during other months. In contrast to these parts, the eastern and southern regions comprising Assam, West Bengal, coastal Orissa, coastal Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka (most part), Tamil Nadu and Kerala receive rainfall of 10 to 20 cm per month in four to eight consecutive months, starting earlier or going over later than the south-westerly monsoon months. Area wise the mono-season belt occupies 53.6 per cent of the area (comprising Assam, West Bengal, coastal Orissa, coastal Andhra Pradesh, parts of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala).

On an all-India basis, about 30 rice-based cropping patterns have been identified in different states. In the most humid areas of eastern India comprising Tripura, Manipur and Mizoram, rice is the exclusive crop. In Meghalaya, rice is alternated with cotton, vegetable and food crops, whereas in Arunachal Pradesh, where rice is not grown exclusively, the alternative crops being maize, small millets and oilseeds. In parts of Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and northern coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh, jute forms an important commercial crop alternative to rice.

In the southern states, namely Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala rice is grown in more than one season and mostly under irrigation or under sufficient rainfall. In Karnataka the crops alternatives to rice are: ragi, plantation crops, bajra, cotton, groundnut, jowar and maize. In Kerala plantation crops and tapioca form the main plantation crops alternative to rice. However, in

Punjab and Haryana and to some extent in western Uttar Pradesh owing to high water-table during this monsoon season, rice has become a major crops in such areas.

The kharif cereals other than rice: Maize, jowar and bajra form the main kharif cereals, whereas ragi and small millets come next and are grown on a limited area. By and large, maize is a crop grown commonly in high-rainfall areas, or on soils with a better capacity for retaining moisture, but with good drainage. Next comes jowar in the medium rainfall regions whereas bajra has been the main crop in areas with low or less dependable rainfall and on light textured soils.

The maize-based cropping patterns: The largest area under the kharif maize is in Uttar Pradesh (1.4m ha), followed by Bihar (0.96 m ha), Rajasthan (0.78 m ha), Madhya Pradesh (0.58 m ha) and Punjab (0.52 m ha). Taking the rainfall of the maize growing areas under consideration, over 72 per cent of the areas receive 20-30 cm per month of rainfall in at least two months or more during the south westerly monsoon season. On the all-India basis, about 12 cropping patterns have been identified. They have maize as the base crop. In the maize growing areas of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, rice in kharif and wheat in rabi are the main alternative crops. In some areas, bajra, groundnut, sugarcane, ragi and pulses are taken as alternative crops

The kharif jowar-based cropping patterns: The area under the kharif jowar in India is highest in Maharashtra (2.5 m ha), closely followed by Madhya Pradesh (2.3 m ha), whereas in each of the states of Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Gujarat, the area under this crops is between 1.0 and 1.4 m ha. Jowar is mainly grown where rainfall distribution ranges from 10-20 per month at least for 3 to 4 months of the south-westerly monsoon or is still more abundant.

The bajra-based cropping patterns: Bajra is more drought-resistant crop than several other cereal crops and is generally preferred in low-rainfall areas and on light soils. The area under the bajra crop in India is about 12.4 m ha and Rajasthan (4.6 m ha) shares about the 2/3 total area. Maharashtra, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh together have over 4.6 m ha, constituting an additional 1/3 area under bajra, in India. Over 66 per cent of this crop is grown in areas receiving 10-20 cm per month of rainfall, extending over 1 to 4 months of the south-westerly monsoon.

The groundnut based cropping patterns: Groundnut is sown over an area of about 7.2 m ha, mostly in five major groundnut-producing states of Gujarat (24.4 per cent area), Andhra Pradesh (20.2) per cent), Tamil Nadu (13.5 per cent), Maharashtra (12.2 per cent) and Karnataka (12.0 per cent). Five other states viz. Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan and Orissa together have about 17.3 per cent of the total area under this crop. The rainfall in the groundnut area ranges from 20-30 cm per month in one of the monsoon months and much less in the other months. In some cases the rainfall is even less than 10 cm. per month during the growth of the crop. The irrigated area under groundnut is very small and that too, in a few states only, viz. Punjab(16.4 per cent), Tamil Nadu (13.3 per cent)and Andhra Pradesh (12.5 per cent).In Gujarat besides the sole crop of groundnut in some areas, bajra, is the major alternative crop, whereas the kharif jowar, cotton and pulses are also grown in this tract. In Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, this crop receives irrigation in some areas and rice forms an alternative crop. Under rainfed conditions, bajra, kharif jowar, small millets, cotton and pulses are grown as alternative crops

The cotton-based cropping patterns: Cotton is grown over 7.6 m ha in India. Maharashtra shares 36 per cent (2.8 m ha), followed by Gujarat with 21 per cent (1.6 m ha), Karnataka with 13 per cent (1 m ha) and Madhya Pradesh with 9 per cent (0.6 m ha) of the area. Together, these four states account for about 80 per cent of the area under cotton. The cotton grown in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh (4.8 m ha) is rainfed, whereas in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu (1.93 m ha) it receives partial irrigation 16-20 per cent of the area). The area under cotton in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh (0.8 m ha)gets adequate irrigation, ranging from 71 to 97 per cent of the area. These growing conditions, together with the species of cotton grown, determine the duration of the crop which may vary from about 5 to 9 months.

The Rabi Season Cropping Patterns

Among the rabi crops, wheat, together with barley and oats, jowar and gram, are the main base crops in the rabi cropping patterns. Generally, wheat and gram are concentrated in the subtropical region in northern India, whereas the rabi sorghum is grown mostly in the Deccan.

The wheat-and-gram-based cropping patterns: These two crops are grown under identical climate and can often be substituted for each other. The core of the wheat region responsible for 70 per cent of the area and 76 per cent of production comprises Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh, flanked by Rajasthan and Gujarat in the western region and Bihar and West Bengal in the eastern region. The rainfall during the south-westerly monsoon is also fairly high with over 20 cm to 30 cm of rainfall in at least two out of the four months of the rainy season. However, winter showers are scattered and form less than 2.5 cm in each month from November to February. In Uttar Pradesh, maize, rice, jowar (K), small millets and groundnut form the main crops preceding wheat and gram. Generally, gram is grown on more moisture- retentive soils, but with little irrigation or in areas with less of rainfall.

Rabi jowar-based cropping patterns: On the all-India level, about 13 cropping patterns have been identified with the rabi jowar. Maharashtra has the largest number of these cropping patterns, wherein starting with the exclusive rabi jowar, bajra, pulses, oilseeds and tobacco are grown as alternative crops. In Karnataka, small millets, groundnut, bajra, pulses and oilseeds form alternative crops to the rabi jowar. Cotton and tobacco are also grown in some parts of the rabi-jowar area of Karnataka. In Andhra Pradesh, shortduration pulses, small millets, paddy and oilseeds form the main alternative crops in the jowar area.

Plantation and Other Commercial Crops: Crops under this category include sugarcane, tobacco, potato, jute, tea, coffee, coconut, rubber and other crops, such as spices and condiments. Some of them are seasonal, some annual and some perennial. Generally, the areas occupied by them are very limited as compared with food and other crops. Nevertheless, they are important commercially. Most of them require specific environmental conditions and from the point of view of cropping patterns, they are concentrated in some particular regions. Be- sides, certain horticultural crops, such as apple, mango and citrus, are important

In several sugarcane-growing areas, mono-cropping is practised, and during the interval between the crops, short duration seasonal crops are grown. In U.P., Bihar, Punjab and Haryana, wheat and maize are the rotation crops. Rice is also grown in some areas. In the southern states, namely Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, ragi, rice and pulses are grown along with sugarcane. In Maharashtra, pulses, jowar and cotton are grown.

In the potato-growing region, maize, pulses, wheat are the alternative crops. in the tobaccogrowing areas, depending on the season and the type of tobacco, jowar, oilseeds and maize are grown in rotation. in the jute-growing areas, rice is the usual alternative crop.

In the case of plantation-crops, intercropping with pulses and fodder crops is common. Spices and condiments are generally grown on fertile soils. Chillies are rotated with jowar, whereas onion, coriander, turmeric and ginger are grown as mixed crops with other seasonal crops.

Crop	Region
Sugarcane	Uttar Pradesh , Haryana ,Bihar, Punjab, Maharashtra
Tobacco	Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka
Potato	Uttar Pradesh, Bihar , West Bengal
Jute	West Bengal, North eastern Region, Bihar
Coconut	Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
Rubber	Kerala, Tamil Nadu , Karnataka
Cashew	Kerala , Karnataka , Andhra Pradesh
Tea	West Bengal, Assam and Tripura, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka
Coffee	Kerala , Tamil Nadu and Karnataka
Onion	Maharashtra , Karnataka , Andhra Pradesh
Chillies	Andhra Pradesh , Maharashtra , Karnataka
Coriander	Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh
All fruit-crops	Spread all-over India

FERTILIZERS AND MANURES

Continuous cultivation reduces the fertility of the soil. In order to replenish the mineral nutrients of the soil, various types of organic and chemical fertilizers are used.

Manures

These are organic fertilizers. Different varieties of manures are green manure, animal waste, night soil and compost. Green manures are quick maturing leguminous leaf crops which mix easily in the soil. They help nitrogen fixation in the soil. Important among the green manures are sun-hemps, dhencha and cowpea. Some times these crops are grown in the fields and ploughed back into it. Animal wastes comprise dung and urine of farm cattle. These are very effective. Compost consists of vegetable and animal waste which is collected in a pit and allowed to develop characteristics of a fertilizer by rotting.

Chemical Fertilizers

 These are inorganic forms of plant nutrients in concentrated form. There are three important categories of chemical fertilizers, namely nitrogenous (N), Phosphatic (P) and Potassic (K). Together they are popularly referred to as NPK.

Amonium Sulphate, amonium nitrate, urea, calcium nitrate, sodium nitrate, amonium chloride etc. are nitrogenous fertilizers. Superphosphate, double rock phosphate, rock phosphate, amonium phosphate, triple super phosphate, diamonium phosphate, monoammonium sulphate, nitro-phosphate are phosphatic fertilizers. Nitrate of potash and sulphate of potash are potassic fertilizers. Mixed fertilizers containing the above mentioned basic fertilizers in different proportions and combinations are available to suit the requirements of specific crops. Adequate availability of water is necessary to obtain the best results from inorganic fertilizers.

The domestic fertilizer industry has witnessed a phenomenal expansion since 1969. This followed the major revolution in agriculture that was ushered in during 1966-1969. Fertilizer demand has been influenced by greater irrigation facilities, introduction of HYVs, increased cropping intensity and efforts at educating the farmer in advanced farming techniques through extension services. Since manufacturers have taken pains to educate the farmers, fertilizer consumption has increased substantially. But government’s policy of subsidizing production and controlling fertilizer prices has also helped greatly.

Fertilizers: New programmes

• A number of measures have been taken by Government of India to improve fertilizer appication in our country.
• In this context, National Project on Management of Soil Health & Fertility (NPMSF), has been introduced in 2008-09 with a view to setting up of 500 new Soil Testing Laboratories (STLs) and 250 Mobile Soil Testing Laboratories (MSTLs) and strengthening of the existing State STLs for micronutrient analysis.
• In order to ensure adequate availability of fertilizers of standard quality to farmers and to regulate trade, quality and distribution in thecountry, fertilizers have been declared an essential commodity as per the Fertilizer Control Order (FCO) 1985 promulgated under Section 3 of the Essential Commodity Act 1955.
• The procedure for incorporation of new products has been liberalized and simplified to encourage manufacture and use of fortified fertilizers.
• Eight fertilizers have been specified as fortified fertilizers in FCO 1985. To encourage balanced use of fertilizers, a new concept of customized fertilizers has been introduced.
• These fertilizers are soil specific and crop specific. Organic fertilizers, namely city-based compost and vermin compost, and bio-fertilizers, namely rhizobium, azotobacter, azospirillum and phosphate solubilizing bacteria, have been recognized and incorporated in FCO 1985.
• India is the third largest producer of nitrogenous fertilizers in the world, only behind China and USA.
• The Govt. introduced the Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) policy w.e.f. 1.4.2010 for decontrolled Phosphate and Potassic (P&K) fertilizers. The NBS policy, introduced in April 2010, gives a fixed amount of subsidy based on the nutrient content of fertilizers, leaving the maximum retail price (MRP) to be decided by the market. It applies to all fertilizers except urea—despite experts recommending its inclusion.

FERTILIZER UNITS (PUBLIC SECTOR UNDERTAKINGS)

• Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilisers Limited (1978) (Trombay)        .           \
• National Fertilizers Limited (NFL) (1974)
• Projects and Development India Limited (PDIL) (1978)
• The Fertilizers and Chemical Travancore Limited (FACT) (1943) (Kerala) : In 1980, FACT became a PSU and towards the end of 1982, the Govt. of India became the major shareholder.
• Madras Fertilizers Limited (MFL) (1906) : It is a joint venture between the Govt. of India and the National Iranian Oil Company with the rest as public equity holding.
• Brahmputra Valley Fertilizer Corporation Limited ( BVFCL) (2002)
• FCI Aravali Gypsum and Mineral India Limited

Fertilizers: Consumption

Overall Consumption: Over all consumption of fertilizers per hectare has increased steadily from 105.5 kgs in 2005-06, to 111.80 in 2006-07, 116.80 in 2007-08 and 128.6 in 2008-09. In 2015-16 it stands for 144 kgs /hectare.

India's Total Consumption: India's total consumption of the fertilizers (N+P+K) has been 203.40 Lakh tonnes in 2005-06, and 255 lakh tonnes in 2012-13.

It must be pointed out that in some parts of the country there is a tendency to over-use fertilizers, despite the fact that the recommended quantities for use are known to the farmers. This has created problems of chemical pollution of water, and land. Such a situation has arisen, on the one hand, because of the constraints of area coverage by agricultural extension workers, as a result of which several of the plant protection practices are not known. On the other hand, there is a misconception among many farmers that fertilizers alone can do wonders in crop returns.

Bio-fertilizers

To check the excessive use of chemical fertilizers, the use of bio-fertilizers is being propagated, for which Blue and Green Algae, quality rhizobum and other bio-fertilizers are being introduced Popularization of Gobar Gas Plants is promoting the use  of manures based on animal waste.

IRRIGATION

Monsoons and Inevitability of Irrigation

Monsoonal lands over the ages have been densely populated, be it India, Pakistan or China. All of them stand at the top of the list of nations that depend on irrigation. China leads not only in population but it is way ahead of the rest of the world in irrigation. In late sixties when India’s irrigated area stood at 37.6 million hectares, China had 74 million hectares under irrigation. Pakistan then claimed 11.9 million hectares. The monsoons by their very nature make irrigation indispensable. The following facts merit out attention.

• 75 to 90 percent of rainfall compressed in just three to four months of the rainy monsoon season leaving the rest of the year high and dry.
• Even  this brief rainy season is subject to vagaries of monsoons, such as early or late burst of monsoons, dry spells of drought of uncertain durations followed by the abrupt withdrawal of the monsoons.
• A high degree of variability of rainfall from year to year. In the north-western part this variability is as high as 60% from the normal.
• While one part of India may be suffering from severe drought and famines the other may be facing a deluge from devastating floods.
• Geographically uneven distribution of rainfall. This calls for an integrated approach to the twin problems of irrigation and flood control.

Water as a Critical Input in Indian Agriculture

It is the land and people ratio which has now become the most debilitating factor governing our entire economy. With 2.4% of the land area we are called upon to sustain 16% of the world’s population. This is clearly expressed by the fact that we have to sustain 27 persons per every square kilometer while this figure for China is only 110; for USA 26 and erstwhile USSR just 12.

The nature, however, has been more considerate to India as its 45% of the total area is already under the  plough whereas such figures for USA is 20,  Japan 13 and China 11. More importantly the per capita availability of arable land in India is only 0.20 hectare as against 1.70 ha in Canada, 0.73 in USA and 0.81 in the former USSR. And yet we are better off as compared with China 0.14 hectare in Japan 0.04 hectare.

Now there is hardly any scope to increase the land under the plough. At the time of Independence the per capita arable land was twice as large as it is today. Thus with ever growing population we have been fighting a losing battle on the front of arable land. The only battle ground on which we can make up for this progressive loss to some extent is our water or irrigation front. This is the only elbow room for us to increase our gross sown area.

The Potential and Actually Developed Water Resources

As per one of the measurements has been estimated that the potential water resources of the entire country are of the order of 167 million hectare metres. (One hectare-metre means a hectare of level land on which stands water which is one metre deep.) Out of this total volume of water only 66 million hectare metres can be utilized by us for irrigation purposes. According to a long term perspective plan we would be able to utilize it fully by 2010 A.D. in a phased manner. In 1951 only 9.7 million hectare metres were used. This rose to 18.4 million hectares by 1973; and about 33 million hectares by 1990.

As per area already brought or to be brought under irrigation the significant figures are as under. In 1951 only 22.6 million hectares of land was under irrigation. By 1984-85 it almost tripled to 67.5 million hectares. In 1990 the figure rose to 80 million hectares as against the target of 113 million hectares to be realized by 2010 A.D. This of course is a gross sown area and not the net sown. Currently 45 million hectares of net sown area is under irrigation which forms only 28% of the net sown area. What needs to be noted is that not more than 50% of the total net sown area will be ultimately brought under irrigation. When we talk about the total potential and actual area under irrigation we include 40 million hectares of usable ground water resources of this potential only 100 million hectares we have been able to put to use by now leaving considerable scope for utilizing the remaining portion of ground water resources. Development of this potential is amenable to lesser investment and simple technology.

Irrigation Area

Several types of irrigation are practiced in the country. They depend on the availability of surface or ground water; relief, soils and the moisture requirements of the crops. The source of irrigation can be broadly classified as Canals, Tanks, Wells, and Tubewells.

There was a time when various sources of kinds of irrigation were looked at in watertight compartments, which is no more true today. Today an integrated approach of utilizing both the surface as well as ground water is adopted with much greater profitability. It also combines public and private sources simultaneously minimizing the risk of depending on the former very often helplessly. This is how Punjab has succeeded in making a judicious use of both surface and ground water through canal and tubewell irrigation, using both of them to their maximum.

Canal Irrigation

Canal Irrigation is found almost everywhere. It is now being extended even to the driest parts of the country such as Ganganager, Bikaner and Jaiselmer in West Rajasthan. It irrigates 39 per cent of the net irrigated area. Such irrigation is a very important lifeline in the states of Orissa (6 per cent), West Bengal (4), Assam (63) and Haryana (53) where more than half the net irrigated area is fed by canals. In the case of Andhra Pradesh, the canal irrigated area is just below 50 per cent of the net irrigated area.

Other states where canals have some significance are Punjab, Bihar, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, Large tracts in these States have yet to be brought under assured irrigation.

Canals can be perennial or non-perennial. Besides these canals, there are inundation canals which are taken off from the rivers without constructing barrages. These canals get water only when the river is in floods. Therefore the inundation canals are of limited use. Some of the outstanding canals such as upper Ganga Canal, Lower Ganga Canal, Upper Bari Doab Canal, Sirhind Canal were completed during the later half of the last century. The irrigation projects constructed after 1941, such as Bhakra Canal System, Nagar junasagar Irrigation works, Indira Gandhi (Rajasthan) Canal Project, Gandak Project and Nagarjunasagar Canal System are gigantic canal systems. Irrigation is important in states of Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Jammu &Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh where more than half of the irrigated area of these states is irrigated by canals.

Detrimental Effects of Canal Irrigation 

Though the canals are a good source of irrigation yet they have many detrimental effects on land. The level of sub-soil water rises in the canal irrigated areas. The seepage and overflow from canals, might render the once cultivable soil completely water logged. Where the water-table is still a few feet below the ground, the capillary action brings alkaline salts to the surface making the land unproductive. This results in a high concentration of salts in the soil. It is not only the fertile soil that is rendered useless, roads and buildings are also damaged because of the soft wet soil. The problem of water-logging is not so acute in the areas where the main canals are lined with bricks. Even this does not take care of yet another problem of water loss through constant evaporation.

Tank Irrigation

In the uneven and relatively rocky plateau of the Peninsula, rainfall is highly seasonal, and possibilities for storing water across slopes (in tanks) exist. This is only 9 per cent of all irrigated area. Only in Eastern Madhya Pradesh, the interior area of Tamil Nadu and in Andhra Pradesh the tank irrigation is more extensive then canal or well irrigation. Nowhere else in the country do tanks irrigate more than 28 per cent (Andhra Pradesh) of the total irrigated area. Kerala (24 per cent), Tamil Nadu (27 per cent), Karnataka (22 per cent) and West Bengal (20%) are the only other tank irrigated parts of the country that have more than a fifth of their irrigated areas so nourished. Punjab, Haryana and Assam do not report tanks, as tanks are confined only to the rocky terrain.

The chief drawbacks of tank irrigation are

• tank cover large areas of cultivable land.
• evaporation of water is relatively rapid, and
• they do not ensure perennial supply of water.

Well Irrigation

Wells and tubewells are mainly used in the alluvial plains and, whether energized or not, they irrigate the largest not irrigated area in the country, about 46 per cent. This method is popular where ground-water is plentiful and generally canals few. In the past two decades, well irrigation has greatly increased in the plains of northern India where there are ample ground water reserves. More than half the net irrigated area is under well irrigation here. Wells predominate in Gujarat (78 per cent), Maharashtra (5), Punjab (61), Rajasthan (2) and Uttar Pradesh (61), while in all other States wells account for less than half the irrigated area. Kerala, West Bengal and Assam do not report wells as the surface water there is in abundant measure. Dadra and Nagar Haveli is fully dependent on subsoil water. Because of rapid expansion of this source, canals have been relegated to second position as a source of irrigation in these areas. Unlike canals, tubewells fitted with water pumps ensure more dependable and timely supply of water for their crops.

The geographic distribution of irrigation source, generally conforms to the climatic and topographical conditions. But well irrigation confirms the ground water potential. The over-exploitation underground water is leading to the decline of water table and reduction of moisture in the soil. For pumping the underground water the rural areas require greater amount of diesel or electricity to operate the pumpsets. The frequent power cuts and break downs have encouraged diesel sets despite their higher costs.

Major, Medium and Minor Irrigation Projects

The methods of irrigation used in India can be broadly classified into major, medium and minor irrigation schemes. Irrigation projects having Culturable Command Area (CCA) of more than 10,000 hectares each are classified as major projects. Those having a CCA between 2,000 hectares and 10,000 hectares fall under the category of medium irrigation projects. And the projects which have a CCA of less than 2,000 hectares are classified as minor irrigation schemes. For the purpose of analysis the major and the medium irrigation projects are generally grouped together. These projects comprise a network of dams, bunds, canals and other such schemes. Such projects require substantial financial outlay and are, therefore, constructed by the government or any other agency which may draw financial assistance form the government and financial institutions.

The minor irrigation projects, on the other hand, comprise all ground water development schemes such as dug wells, private shallow tubewells, deep public tubewells, and boring and deepening of dug wells, and small surface water development works such as storage tanks, lift irrigation projects, etc

Minor irrigation projects or the ground water development schemes are essentially people's programmes implemented primarily through individual and cooperative efforts with finances obtained mainly through institutional sources.

SOME IRRIGATION AND MULTIPURPOSE PROJECTS

Bargi Project (Madhya Pradesh): It is a multipurpose project consisting of a masonry dam across Bargi River in the Jabalpur district and a left bank canal.

Beas Project (Joint venture of Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan): It consists of Beas-Sutlej Link and Beas Dam at Pong.

Bhadra Project (Karnataka): A multipurpose project across the river Bhadra.

Bhakra Nangal Project (Joint project of Haryana, Punjab, and Rajasthan): India's biggest, multipurpose river valley project comprises a straight gravity dam across the Sutlej River at Bhakra, the Nangal dam, the Nangal hydel channel, two power houses at Bhakra dam and two power stations at Ganguwal and Kotla.

Bhima Project (Maharashtra): Comprises two dams, one on the Pawana River near Phagne in Pune district and the other across the Krishna River near Ujjaini in Sholapur district.

Chambal Project (Joint project of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan): The project comprises Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar dam and jawahar Sagar dam.

Damodar Valley Project (West Bengal and Bihar): A multipurpose project for the unified development ofirrigation, flood control and power generation in West Bengal and Bihar. It comprises multipurpose dams at Konar, Tilaiya, Maithon and Panchet; hydel power stations at Tilaiya, Konar, Maithon and Panchet; barrage at Durgapur; and thermal power houses at Bokaro, Chandrapura and Durgapur. The project is administrated by the Damodar Valley Corporation.

Dulhasti Power Project (Jammu & Kashmir): It is a 390 MW power project in Kishtwar region of Jammu & Kashmir on Chenab River. Work for this project started in 1981. The foundation stone was laid on April 15, 1983 by the then Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi. Work on this project was suspended due to threats of kidnapping and killings by Kashmiri militants resulting in long delay in completion of project.

Farakka Project (West Bengal): The project was taken up for the preservation and maintenance of Calcutta port and for improving the navigability of the Hoogly. It comprises a barrage at Jangipur across the Bhagirathi and a feeder channel taking off from the Ganga at Farakka and tailing into the Bhagirathi below the Jangipur barrage.

Gandak Project (Joint project of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh): Nepal also derives irrigation and power benefits form this project.

Ghataprabha Project (Karnataka): A project across Ghataprabha in Belgaum and Bijapur districts.

Hirakund (Odisha): World's longest dam is located on the Mahanadi River.

Jayakwadi Project (Maharashtra): A masonry spillway across the river Godavari.

Kakrapara Project (Gujarat): On the Tapti River near Kakrapara, in Surat district.

Kosi Project (Bihar): A multipurpose project, which serves Bihar and Nepal.

Koyna Project (Maharashtra): It is built on a tributary of river Krishna with a capacity of 880 MW. It feeds power to Mumbai-Pune industrial belt.

Krishna Project (Maharashtra): Dhom dam near Dhom village on Krishna and Kanhar dam near Kanhar village on Varna River in Satna district.

Kundoh Project (Tamil Nadu): It is in Tamil Nadu whose initial capacity of 425 MW has since been expanded to 535 MW.

Mahanadi Delta Scheme (Odisha): The irrigation scheme will utilize releases from the Hirakud reservoir.

Mahanadi Reservoir Project (Madhya Pradesh): It has three phases: (1) Ravishankar Sagar Project and feeder canal system for supply of water of Bhilai Steel Plant and Sandur dam across Sandur village. (2) Extension of Mahanadi feeder canal. (3) Pairi dam.

Mahi Project (Gujarat): A two –phase project, one across the Mahi River near Wanakbori village and the other across Mahi River near Kadana.

Malaprabha Project (Karnataka): A dam across the Malaprabha in Belgaum district.

Mayurakshi Project (West Bengal): An irrigation and hydro-electric project comprise the Canada dam.

Minimato Bango Hasdeo Project (Madhya Pradesh): This project is located at Hasdeo Bango River in Korba district and envisages construction of a masonry dam. A hydel power plant of 120 MW capacity has been commissioned on the Bango dam.

Nagarjunasagar (Andhra Pradesh): On the Krishna River near Nandikona village (about 44 km from Hyderabad).

Panam Project (Gujarat): A gravity masonry dam across Panam river near Keldezar village in Panchmahal district.

Parambikulam Aliyar (Joint venture of Tamil Nadu and Kerala): The integrated harnessing of eight rivers, six in the Annamalai Hills and two in the plains.

Pochampad (Andhra Pradesh): Across Godavari River.

Pong Dam (Punjab): It is an important hydro-electric project located on BeasRiver.

Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi Canal- Rajasthan): The Project uses water released from Pong dam and provides irrigation facilities to the north-western region of Rajasthan, i.e., a part of the Thar Desert. It consists of Rajasthan feeder canal (with the first 167 km in Punjab and Haryana and the remaining 37 km in Rajasthan) and 445 km Rajasthan main canal entirely in Rajasthan.

Rajghat Dam Project (Madhya Pradesh): The Rajghat Dam and Rajghat Hydro Electric Projects are Inter-State projects of MP and UP. The Rajghat Dam is almost complete. All the three units of Rajghat Hydro-Electric Project had been synchronized during 1999 and power generation has been continuing ever since.

Ramganga (Uttarakhand): A dam across Ramganga, a tributary of the Ganga River located in Garhwal district. The project has, besides reducing the intensity of floods in central and western Uttar Pradesh, provided water for the Delhi water supply scheme.

Ranjit Sagar Dam (Thein Dam) (Punjab): A multi-purpose highest dam in the country, built on the Ravi River for the benefit of Punjab, Haryana and Jammu and Kashmir.

Rihand Project (Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh): It is the largest man-made lake in India on the borders of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh with a capacity of 300 MW annually.

Sabarmati (Gujarat): A storage dam across Sabarmati River near Dhari Village in Mehsana district and wasna barrage near Ahmedabad.

Salal Project (Jammu & Kashmir): With the successful completion of the 2.5-km long tailrace tunnel, the 690-MW Salal (Stage I and II ) project in Jammu and Kashmir became fully operational on August 6, 1996.

Sarda Sahayak (Uttar Pradesh): A barrage across the river Ghaghra, a link channel, a barrage across River Sarda and a feeder channel of two major aqueducts over rivers Gomti and Sai.

Sharavathi Project (Karnataka): It is located at the Jog Falls with a capacity of 891 MW. It primarily feeds Bengaluru industrial region and also Goa and Tamil Nadu.

Sone High Level Canal (Bihar): An extension on Sone Barrage project.

Tawa Project (Madhya Pradesh): A project across the Tawa river, a tributary of the Narmada in Hoshangabad district.

Tehri Dam Project (Uttarakhand): Earth and rock-fill dam on Bhagirathi river in Tehri district.

Tungabhadra Project (Joint Project of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka): On the Tungabhadra River.

Ukai Project (Gujarat): A multipurpose project across Tapti River near Ukai village.

Upper Krishna Project (Karnataka): A project consisting of Narayanpur dam across the Krishna River and a dam at Almatti.

Upper Penganga Project (Maharashtra): Two reservoirs on Penganga River at Isapur in Yavatmal district and the other on Rayadhu River at Sapli in Parbhani district.

Uri Power Project (Jammu & Kashmir): It is located on the river Jhelum in the Uri Tehsil of Baramulla district in Jammu & Kashmir. It is a 480-MW hydroelectric project which was dedicated to the nation of February 13, 1997.