Tughlak Dynasty

Ghiasuddin tughlak shah (1320-25 a.d.)

• He was one of the most reputed and experienced Alai nobles. After the murder of Mubarak Shah he entered Delhi to offer throne to the surviving male members of alai family but unfortunately no male heir was left alive. So nobles selcted him as their king.
• He built a strong fort called Tughluqabad near Delhi and strengthened defences of N.W. frontier to guard against the recurring Mongol invasion. he conquered Warangal and put down a revolt in Bengal. By 1324 Sultanate power reached up to Madurai. He died in 1325 A.D. after a fall from a high raised pavalion.

Muhammad bin tughluk (1324-1351 a.d.)

• He tired to introduce many administrative reforms. He had five ambitious projects for which he becomes particularly debatable.
• (1) Transfer of Capital (1326-27) A.D.: The most controversial step which Muhammad Tughluq undertook soon after his accession was the so called transfer of capital from Delhi to Deogir. Deogir had been a base for the expansion of Turkish rule in South India. It appears that the Sultan wanted to make Deogir second capital so that he might be able to control south India better. Deogir was thus named Daulatabad. After a couple of year       Muhammad Tugluq decided to abandon Daulatabed largely because he soon found that just as he could not control South India from Delhi, he could not control North from Daulatabad.
• Introduction of Token Currency (1330-32) A.D.: There was shortage of silver in the world in 14th century Moreover Kublai Khan of China, a Mongol ruler of Iran and Ghazan Khan had successfully experimented with it. Muhammad Tugluq decided to introduce a bronze coin which was to have same value as the silver tanka.?Muhammad Tugluq might still have been successful if the government had been able to prevent people from forgining new coin. The government was not able to do so and soon the new coins began to be greatly devalued in markets. Finally Muhammad Tughlaq decided to withdraw the token currency. He promised to exchange silver pieces for bronze coins.
• (3) Taxation in the Doab (1333-34) A.D.: The Sultan made an ill-advised financial experiment in the Doab between the Ganges and Jamuna. He not only increased the rate of taxation but also revived and created some additional Abwabs or cessess. Although the share of the state remained half as in time of Alauddin, it was fixed arbitrarily not on the basis of actual produce. Prices were also fixed artificially for comerting the produce into money. It is stated in Tarikh-I-Mubarak Shahi that the increase was twenty fold and to this were added Ghari or House Tax and the ‘Charahi’ or pasture tax. The Sultan created a new Department of Agriculture called Diwan-I-Kohi. The main object of this Department was to bring more land under cultivation by giving direct help to peasants.
• (4) Proposed Khurasani Expedition (1332-33 A.D.): The Sultan had a vision of universal conquest. He dicided to conquest Khursan and Iraq and mobilized a huge army for the purpose. He was encouraged to do so by Khurasani nobles who had taken shelter in his court. Moreover there was instability in Khurasan on account of the unpopular rule of Abu Said.
• (5) Quarachil expedition: Muhammad Tughlq intended to capture the mountains of Kaarajal. The expedition was launched in Kumaon hills in Himalayas allegedly to counter Chinese incursions. It also appears that the expedition was directed against some refractory tribes in Kumaon Gharwal region with the object of bringing them under Delhi Sultnate. The first attack was a success but when the rainy seaons set in, the invaders suffered terribly.
• His five projects had led to revolts all around his empire. His last days were spent in checking the revolts.
• Mongol invasion under the leadership of Tarmashirin Khan of Trans oxiana was the first and the last during the time of Muhammad Bin Tuglaq. He faced it very successfully.
• While on way during an expedition to recover Sindh he fell ill and died in 1351 A.D.

Firoz shah tughlaq (1351-1388)

• After his accession Firoz Tughlaq was faced with the problem of preventing the imminent break up of Delhi Sultunate. he adopted the policy of trying to appease the noble, the army and theologians and of asserting his authority over only such areas which could be easily administered from the center. He therefore made no attempt to re-assert his authority over South India and Deccan.
• He led two campaigns to Bengal but was unsuccessful in both. Bengal was thus lost to the Sultnate. Firoz led a campaign against the ruler of Jajnagar. He desecrated the temples there and gathered a rich plunder but made no attempt to annex Orissa. However, his longest conquest was to deal with rebellion in Gujarat and Thatta.
• Having failed in military carrier Firoz tried to appease the nobles and the army. He decreed that whenever a noble died his son should be allowed to succeed to his position including his Iqta and if he had no sons, his son-in-law and in his absence his slave.
• The new system of taxation was according to Quaran. Four kinds of taxes sanctioned by the Quran were imposed and those were Kharaj, Zakat, Jizya and Khams. Kharaj was the land tax which was equal to 1/10 of the produce of the land, Zakat was 21/2% tax on property, Jizya was levied on non-Muslims and Khams was 1/6 of the booty captured during war.
• In order to encourage agriculture, the Sultan paid a lot of attention to irrigation. Firoz repaired a number of canals. The first canal was from Sutlej to Ghaggar. The second canal carried the waters of Jamuna to the city of Hissar. The third canal started from neighbourhood of Mandhavi and Sirmour Hills and connected with Hansi. The fourth canal flowed from the Ghaggar by the fort of Sirsuti up to village of Hirani – Khera.
• He was a great builder, to his credit are cities of Fathabad, Hissar, Jaunapur and Firozabad. During his Bengal campaign he renamed Ikdala as Azadpur and Pandua as Firozabad. The two pillars of Asoka, one from Topra and another from Meerut were brought to Delhi.
• The Sultan established at Delhi, a hospital described variously as Dar-ul-shifa, Bimaristan and Shifa Khana. The chief architect of state was Malik Ghazi Shainan who was assisted in work by Abdul Haq.
• A new department of Diwan-I-Khairat was set up to make provisions for marriages of poor girls.
• However his rule is marked by peace and tranquility and credit for it goes to his Prime Minister Khan-I-Jahan Maqbul. Firoz Shad died in 1388 A.D. and wa succeeded by Tuglaqshah.

Officers

• Majis-i-Khalawat: A council of friends and trusted officers of the sultans. Bar-i-khas: A court in which the sultan received all courtiers, Khans, Maliks, and Amirs. Bar-i-Am: Here the Sultan sat as the Supreme judge.
• The Wazir had control over a number of departments, such as the
• Diwan-i-Risalat-Department of Appeals.
• Diwan-i-Insha-correspondence department.
• Diwan-i-Insha-correspondence department.
• Diwan-i-Bandgan-Department of slaves.
• Diwan-i-Qaza-i-Mamalik-Department of justice, intelligence and posts.
• Diwan-i-Amir Kohi-Department of Agriculture (created by Muhammad bin Tughluq).
• Diwan-i-istihqaq-Department of Pensions.
• Diwan-Khairat-Department of Charity (created by Firuz Shah).
• Diwan-i-Mustakharaj-Department to look after and realise arears from collectors and agents (created by Ala-ud-din Khalji).
• Mustaufi-i-Mamalik: Auditor General. Mushrif-i-Mamalik: In charge of accounts of receipts. Majumdar:  Preserved the record of loans advanced by government. Amir-i-Behr: Controller of Boats. Muhtasib: An officer of municipal police. Bakhshi i-Fauj: Paymaster of the Forces. Naib-i-Wazir-i-Wazir-i-Mamalik: Deputy Wazir. Qazi-ul-Qasat: Lord Chief Justice, aideby muftis to expound the law. Muhtasib: An officer of municiapl police.
• Shiqdars: Headed smaller units, jurisdiction did not extend over more than a few miles.
• Sarkar was placed under a Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran and a Munsif-i-Munsifan (to try civil cases)-Sher Shah’s reign.
• Criminal cases were disposed of by the Qazi and Mir-i-Adal in the parganas.-Sher Shah’s reign.
• Muhtasibs were the censors of Public morals in Mughal period. Under Delhi Sultanate they were officers of municiapl police.

Timur invasions (1398-99 a.d.)

• Timur invaded India in 1398 A.D. during the reign of Muhammad Tughlak. The raid into India was a plundering raid and its motive was to seize the wealth accumulated by the Sultans of Delhi over the last 200 years. He plundered Delhi and Tugluk Empire could not recover from such a terrible below and came to an end in 1412 A.D.

• Khizr Khan was not only the founder of the Sayyid Dynasty but also its ablest ruler. He was a Sayyid. He did not take up the title of king and contented himself with that of Rayat-I-Ala. The coins were struck and Khutba was read in name of Timur. There were only four rulers in this dynasty namely Khizr Khan, Mubarak Shah, Muhammad Shah and the last was Alauddin Alam Shah. Unable to cope with administrative problems and revolts he retired to his personal state in Baudaun. Taking advantage of this opportunity Bahlol Lodhi acquired control of Delhi in 1451 and found new dynasty called Lodhi Dynasty.

• Bahlol Lodhi was the founder of Lodhi dynasty. It was the first Afghan Dynasty of Delhi. Afghan monarchy was in fact a feudalistic tribal oligarchy. Bahlol Lodhi did not adopt aggressive policy toward the powerful neightbouring chiefs. However, he had to fight a long drawn war against Jaunpur which was ultimately conquered. He led a successful expedition against Gwalior.

Sikander lodhi (189-1517 a.d.)

• On Bahlol’s dealth his son Nizam Khan ascended the throne under the title Sikander Shah Lodhi. He conquered Bihar and Tirhut. He truansferred his capital from Delhi to Agra, a city founded by him. Sikander Shah was a fanatical Muslim and he broke the sacred images of the JawalamukhiTemple at Nagarkot and ordered the temples of Mathura to be destroyed.

Ibrahim lodhi

• The Afghan nobility was brave and freedom loving but it was because of its individualistic tendencies that the Afghan monarchy was weakened. Moreover, Ibraham Lodhi assereted the absolute power of the Sultan and insulted the Afghan nobles. Some of the nobles turned against him. At last Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of Punjab invited Babur to over throw Ibrahim. Babur accepted the offer and inflicted a crushing defeat on Ibraham in the first battle of Panipat in 1526 A.D. Ibrahim was killed in the battle and with him ended the Delhi Sultnate.

Causes of Downfal of Sultnate:

• War of succession as there was no fixed law for it.
• Defective military organization.
• Autocracy of Sultan which was disastrous under weak successors.
• Lack of popular support and indifference to public opinion.
• The wild projects of Muhammad Bin Tuglak.
• Vastness of empire and poor means of communication.
• Incompetence of Firoz TuglAk.
• Invasion of Timur

Administration, Economy and Social Life

• The Turkish Sultans in India declared themselves “Lieutenant of the faithful” i.e. of the Abbasid caliphat Baghdad and included his name in Khutba; it did not mean that the caliph became the legal ruler. The caliph had only a moral position.
• The Sultan’s office was the most important in the Sultnate and political, legal and military authority vested in him. He was responsible for administration and was also the commander-in-chief of the military forces. He was also responsible for the maintenance of law and justice. To discharge his functions he appointed judges.
• No clear law of succession developed among Muslim rulers. Thus military strength was the main factor in succession to the throne.

Central administration

• The key figure in the administration was Wazir. In the earlier period the wazirs were primarily military leaders but now he began to be considered more an expert in revenue affairs and presided over large department dealing both with income and expenditure.
• The most important department of state next to wazirs was the Diwani-I-Arz or the military department. The head of military department was called Ariz-I-Marmalik. The special responsibility of Ariz’s department was to recruit, equip and pay the army.
• There were other two important department of the state-the Diwan-I-Risalat and Diwan-I-Insha. The former dealt with religious matters, pious foundations and stipends to deserving scholar and men of piety. It was presided over by a chief Sadar or chief Qazi. The chief Qazi was the head of department of Justice. The Quazi dispensed civil law based on Muslim law (Sharia). The Hindus were governed by their own personal laws which were decided by panchayats in villages.
• The Diwan-I-Insha dealt with state correspondence.
• The rulers posted intelligence agents called Barids in different parts of empire to keep them informed of what was going on.
• Wakil-I-Dar was the officer responsible for different department such as maintenance of proper decorum at the court and he looked after the personal comfort of Sultan and the Karkhanas.

Local administration

• When the Turks conquered the country they divided it into number of tracts called Iqtas which were parceled among the leading Turkish nobles. The holder of the office were called Muqti or Walis. It was these tracts which later became province or Subas.
• Below the province were the Shiqs and below them the Paragana. We are told that the villages were grouped into units of 100 or 84 traditionally called Charurasi. The Paragana was headed by Amil. The most important people in villages were the Khuts (Landowners) or Muqaddam or headman. We also hear of village accountant called Patwari.

Architecture and Literature (Sultanate period)

• Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, Delhi-Qutub-ud-din Aibak.
• Arhai Din Da Jhopra – Ajmer – Qutib-ud-din Aibak.
• Qutub Minar – Iltutmish
• Alauddin Khilji was responsible for construction of Jamaat Khan Masjid at the Dargha of Nizamuddin Auliya and Alai Drawaza at Qutub. The other monuments at Delhi were city of Siri and the Hauzi-I-Alai or Hauzi-I-Khas tanki. He also constructed palace of thousand pillars called Hazar Situn.
• Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq founded the city of tughlaqabad.
• Muhammad Tuglaq founded the small fortreses of Adilabad and city of Jahanpanah.
• Firoz Shah Tuglq was responsible for the foundation of cities of Jaunpur, Fathehabad and Hisar Firuza. At Delhi he built the palace for of Firozabad.
• Another monument of Tughlaq period is tomb of Saint Kabir-ud-din Auliya. It is known as Lal Gumbad constructed by nasir-ud-din Mahmud Shah.
• The best example of architecture during the period of Sayyuid and Lodhi kings are tombs of kings and nobles, the most important among them are the tombs of Bare Khan and Chote Khan, the Bara gumbad, Shish Gumbad. The tomb of Shihad-ud-din Taj Khan, Dadi ka gumbad and Poti ka gumbad.

Bengal

• The Admin Masjid was constructed by Sikander Shah in new capital of Pandua.
• the Elhakhi tomb at Pandua is tomb of Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Shah.
• The Lothan Masjid was built by Yusuf Shah.
• The monuments of Husain Shah period are the Chota Sona Masjid, the Bara Sona Masjid and Qadam Rasul Mosque.
• Ahmad Shah founded the city of Ahmedabad.

Malwa

• There are two mosques at Dhar which were originally capital of Malwa. One mosque was oringnally a Sankrit college which was attached to Hindu temple, even now it is known as Bhoja Shala.
• The Jami Masjid and Hindola Mahal were built by Mahmud Khalji. he also constructed Jahaz mahal at Mandu.

Jaunpur

• The Atala Masjid was built the reign of Ibraham Shah sharqui. The site of Atala masjid was once the site of temple of Atala Devi. The jhanjhri masjid was erected by Ibraham in the of honour Hazrat Sayyad Sara Jahan Ajmali.
• Iltutmish was responsible for the construction of hauz-I-Shamsi, the Shamsi-Idgah and Jami Masjid at baudaun.
• Krishnadeva Raya built the hazaraTemple at Hampi.
• The fort of Kambhalgarh and Kirit Stambha of Rana Sangha are famous.
• The Tomb of Muhammad Adil Shah known as Gol Gumbaz has a peculiar style of its own.

Literature

• Khazyan-ul-Futun  : Amir Khusro
• Tughluq Nama      : Amir Khusro
• Tarik-I-Alai            : Amir Khusro
• Tabqat-I-Naisiri     : Minhaj-us-Siraj.
• Tarik-I-Firoz Shahi: Zia-ud-din Barni.
• Tarikh-I-Mubarak  : Ghulam
• Shahi                     :Yahiyabin Ahmad
• Gita Govind           : Jayadeva
• Sasttra Dipika        : Parthasarthi Misra
• Mitakshara             : Vighanes Vara
• Dayabhaga            : Jimuta Vahana.
• Nagachandra also known as Abinavapampa was the author of Pampa Ramayan.
• Alhakhanda           : Jagnayak (Deeds of love and war of Allha-udal).
• Hammir Rasau andHammirkasva: Sarangdhara.
• Ashiqa                   : Khusro
• Amuktamalyada    : Krishnadeva Raya
• Futuhat-I-Firozshahi : Firoz Shah.
• Prasana Raghava  : Jayadeva.
• Hamir-Meda-Mardana: Jay Singh Suri
• Pradyumnabhyadaya: Ravi Verman.
• Parvati Parinay  : Vaman Bhatta Bana
• Ganga Das Pratap Vilas : Gangadhara
• Lalit Madhava  : Rupagoswami
• Pratap Rudra Kalyan: Vidya Nath.
• Krishna Deva Raya’s poet laureate was Allasni Peddana, the author of Svarochisa Mancharitra

• A.D. 1221: Chingiz Khan (in the time of Iltutimish, Chingiz Khan returned from the Indian borders with out causing any destruction)
• 1241: Mongols came under Tair during the reign of Bahram Shah.
• 1245: Mongols advance upto uch.
• 1257: Mongols were defeated by Balban.
• 1292: The Mongol chief Abdulah (in the time of Jalalluddin Khalji) raided India.
• 1296: Zafar Khan Alauddin Khalji’s scommander, defeated the Mongols near Jullandhar.
• 1297: Qadr Khan and later Saldi advance innto India.
• 1200: The Mongol invasion led by Qutbugh Khwajah (Zafar Khan was killed).
• 1303: Mongols under Targhi invaded India (Alauddin Khalji took shelter in the fort of Siri).
• 1305: Mongols under Targhriraided India again.
• 1306: The came under the leadership of Kubak.
• 1307-8: The Mongols invaded under the leadership of Iqbalmand.
• 1328-29: Muhammad Tughluq persuaded Tarmashirin to retire.
• 1398: Timur crossed the Indus on September 20.

• With the establishment of the Mughal Empire  the rule of Delhi sultanate came to an end.  During more than 300 years of its rule the Delhi  sultanate went through various ups and downs  but survived as a political force. Here we would  like to discuss the major challenges the sultanate  faced. 

Attacks by Mongols and others 

• Since its inception the major threat to the  sultanate came in the form of Mongol invasions. 
• Mongols were nomadic groups who inhabited  the steppes north of China and east of Lake  Baikal.
• They formed a huge nomadic empire  under Chengiz Khan in the 12thcentury.
• From  13th century onwards they repeatedly attacked  the Delhi Sultanate.
• The Sultans as a policy  appeased them and also at times confronted.
• Balban and Allauddin Khalji confronted them  with full military might. During Khalji’s time  Mongols under Qultlug Khwaja even besieged  Delhi and caused a lot of damage.
• The last  significant attack of Mongols was by Tarmashirin  during the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq.
• A lot  of energy and resources of the Sultans were spent  in facing these invasions but they could not  destroy the sultanate.
• Another important attack which shook the  foundation of the sultanate was by Timur in  1398.
• The weakness of the Delhi Sultanate was  made even worse by Timur’s invasion of Delhi  (1398).
• Timur was a son of the Chief of Chagtai  branch of Turks.
• When he invaded India he was  the master of almost whole of Central Asia.
• Timur’s raid into India was a plundering raid  and his motive was to seize the wealth  accumulated by the Sultans of Delhi over the last  200 years.
• Sultan Nasiruddin and his Wazir  Mallu Iqbasl faced Timur but were defeated. 
• Timur entered Delhi and stayed for 15 days.
• He  ordered general massacre and large number of  Hindu and Muslim including women and  children were murdered.
• Before leaving India  Timur’s invasion indicated the downfall of Delhi  Sultanate. Delhi Sultanate lost control over  Punjab.
• Timur appointed Khizr Khan, the ruler  for Multan who controlled Punjab also.
• After the  fall of Tughlaq dynasty he occupied Delhi and  became the ruler of Delhi Sultanate.
• He laid the  foundation of Saiyyid Dynasty. 

Inner Conflict of Nobility 

• Three hundred years of Delhi Sultanate  witnessed five dynasties ruling over it.
• The main  reason for change of dynasties and deposing of  rulers was a constant struggle between the  Sultan and the nobility (Umara).
• Soon after the  death of Aibak they started fighting over the  question of succession.
• Finally Iltutimish emerged  victorious. Iltutimish created a group of loyal  nobles called Turkan-i-Chihiligani (‘The Forty’). 
• After the death of Iltutimish various factions of  the group of forty got involved in making their  favourite son/daughter as the sultan.
• In ten  years five sultans were changed. After that the  Sultan who occupied the throne (Nasiruddin  Mahmud) for 20 years hardly ruled and one of  the powerful noble Balban was defacto sultan. 
• The same Balban succeeded Nasiruddin after his  death.
• Almost similar events happened after the  death of each powerful sultan (Balban, Alauddin  Khalji, Firoz Tughlaq and others.)
• Since there  was no well defined law of succession each noble  tried to either crown himself or support some  favourite heir of the dead sultan.
• Finally Afghans  replaced the Turks as sultan with the accession  of Bahlol Lodi. 

Provincial Kingdoms 

• Another consequence of this conflict was  declaration of independence by various  provincial heads in the regions.
• As a result a  number of independent Afghan and Turkish  kingdoms emerged.
• Important ones of such  states were Bengal (Lakhnouti), Jaunpur, Malwa,  Gujarat, the Bahmani kingdom in the Deccan  etc.
• Quite often these states were at war with  the Sultanate. The whole process weakened the  sultanate. 

Resistance by Indian Chiefs 

• The sultans had to face the resistance from  Indian chiefs at regular intervals.
• The Rajput  chiefs in Rajputana (Mewar, Ranthambhor,  Chittor etc.), Warangal, Deogiri & Ma’bar in  Deccan and South, the king of Dhar, Malwa in  Central India, Jajnagar in Orissa and a host of  smaller chieftains were constantly at war even  after successive defeats.
• All these struggles  weakened the sultanate. 
• The Delhi sultanate was considerably  weakened after the Khalji and Tughlaq reign. 
• Finally the invasion of Babur in AD 1526 brought  it to an end.
• Now a much more centralised and  strong empire under the Mughals established  itself in India and ruled for a further period of  more than two hundred years.
• We will discuss  it in our next lesson on the Mughal Rule.

But  before moving to the Mughals we provide you a  brief account of the provincial kingdoms.