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India is a large, relatively self-contained landmass forming a subdivision of an Asia. Most of this region is a subcontinent resting on the Indian Plate (the northerly portion of the Indo-Australian Plate) separated from the rest of the Eurasian Plate. The Indian Plate includes most of South Asia, forming a land mass which extends from the Himalayas into a portion of the basin under the Indian Ocean, including parts of South China and Eastern Indonesia, as well as Kunlun and Karakoram ranges.
India lies entirely in northern hemisphere and covers 2.4% of total world area. The country extends up to 3200 km from south to north and 3000km from east to west covering 32,87,263 sq.km.
Geo-politically India has contended borders with belligerent neighbours and an extensive nautical coastline, islands, and maritime interests which it must defend, and we sit along some of the most critical global sea lanes of trade. We are neighboured by larger regional rival China with which we share a contentious land border, regional influence and also share intertwined spheres of influence in the South China Sea and Indian Oceans, common regional and global interests, sea lanes of trade and communication, and need for natural resources.
Mainland:
Coastline: 6100 km Coastline along the mainland: 7516.6 km (Including Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and others)
Northern most point: Indira Col (J&K) Southernmost point: Indira point (also known as Parsons Point or Pygmalion Point) (Nicobar Islands 6°30’N)
(Indonesia lies few km from Indira Point separated by Great Channel)
Neighbors: Order of countries bordering India in terms of length of border (Highest to Lowest): Bangladesh, China, Pakistan, Nepal, Myanmar Bhutan & Afghanistan.
Important Boundary Lines
McMohan Line: Indo- China
Durrand line: India- Afghnaistan
Radcliffe Line: India- Pakistan
India and its neighbors Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh together form a giant geographical entity and are known as the Indian sub-continent.
India’s relief is marked by a great variety. This is due to the differences in geological structure, history and the involved denudational processes. The Indian mainland can be divided into five physiographic units namely
S.NO
UNITS
AREA KM (Sq) (appro)
% OF TOTAL AREA
01
Northern mountains
578,000
17.9
02
Great Plains
550,000
17.1
03
Thar Desert
175,000
5.4
04
Central Highlands
336,000
10.4
05
Peninsular Plateaus
1,241,000
38.5
06
Coastal Plains
335,000
07
Islands
8,300
0.3
All of them are marked by dissimilarities in Physical and geological properties. The Northern Mountains present the youngest and the most highly differentiated relief. The Great Plains show a monotonous depositional surface of great extent. The Peninsular Plateaus are dominated by an open senile topography and the coasts present a low topography with features of both erosion and deposition.
“The Himalayas are refreshingly young and highest of the various alpine mountain chains of the world. Their enormous height can be estimated from the fact that the highest peak in the world outside Himalayas is Aconcagua, standing at 6962m whereas Himalayas boast of over 100 separate peaks higher than 7200m.”
The Himalayas stretch across six nations: Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan. They are the source of three of the world's major river systems, the Indus basin, the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin and the Yangtze basin. Approximately 2.4 billion people live in the drainage basin of the Himalayan rivers, among them the people of Bangladesh. The Himalayas run, west to east, from the Indus river valley to the Brahmaputra river valley, thereby forming an arc 2,400 km long, which varies in width from 400 km in the western Kashmir-Xinjiang region to 150 km in the eastern Tibet-Arunachal Pradesh region.
Geologically, the origin of the Himalayas is the impact of the Indian tectonic plate travelling northward at 15 cm per year to impact the Eurasian continent, about 40-50 million years ago. The formation of the Himalayan arc resulted since the lighter rock of the seabeds of that time was easily uplifted into mountains. The evidence for this is that the summit of Mount Everest is made of marine limestone. Due to recent origin on geological time scale, Himalayan mountains are called Young Fold Mountains. These young fold mountains consist of a series of parallel ranges with deep valleys between them and have variety of rock structures, deep gorges and high pyramidal peaks. In High Himalayas the rivers have steep gradients, which result from the differential uplift of the High Himalayas. It has been suggested that a long and narrow arc of High Himalayas has been uplifted during quaternary.
Syntaxis/ Syntaxial bends:
Himalaya is marked at the both the western and eastern ends by geological Syntaxial bends in rock structure wherein the tight, fault bounded, trapdoor or pop-up uplifts of Naga Parbat on the west and Namche Barwa at the east have occurred in past few million years. These mark the end of Himalayas at both ends, more prominently at thewestern end.
This region lies north of the Greater Himalayas. Rocks in this region date back from the PalaeozoicEra to Pleistocene Epoch.
This zone has Isoclinal folds and it includes the Greater Himalayas and some parts of LesserHimalayas. The Isoclinal folds are essentially parallel to each other and thus approximately parallel to the
axial plane. This region has abundant rocks such as granite as well as metamorphic rocks like schistsand gneiss. This region also has sedimentary rocks.
A nappe (literally means tablecloth) is a large sheetlike body of rock that has been moved some
kilometres away from its original position. Nappes form during continental plate collisions, whenfolds are sheared so much that they fold back over on themselves and break apart. The resultingstructure is a large-scale recumbent fold. The nappes are most common in Kashmir and KumaunHimalayas.
Outer or Sub-Himalayan Zone
This zone includes the Siwalik range which is mainly composed of sedimentary deposits of upper tertiary period. This implies that the Shivalik hills are mainly derived from the eroded material of themain Himalayan ranges.
Peaks
Height (m)
Mount Everest
8,848
Kanchenjunga
8,598
Lhotse
8,516
Makalu
8,481
Cho Oyu
8,188
Dhaulagiri
8,172
Mansalu
8163
Nanga Parbat
8,126
Annapoorna
8,091
Gasherbum
8080
Gasherbum II
8035
Nanda Devi
7788
Kailash
6638
This is the innermost loftiest and most continuous of Himalayan ranges. This always remains
snow-covered and is generally referred to as ‘Himadri’. Its average altitude exceeds 6000 metres and its average width is
25kilometers. Some of the lofty peaks are mentioned in the table
Passes
state
BurzilPass and Zoji La
Kashmir
Bara Lacha La & Shipki La in
Himachal Pradesh
Thaga La, Niti Pass ‘Lipu Lekh Pass in
Uttrakhand
Nathu La & Jelep La in
Sikkim
This range lies between the Shiwaliks in the South and Greater Himalayas in the north. The average elevation of this range is from 3700 to 4500 meter and average width of this range is 60 to 80 km.This range is highly dissected and uneven. The slope is gentle towards east and covered with dense vegetation.
The ranges are called by different names in different regions. They are called Pir Panjal in Jammu and Kashmir and Dhauladhar in Himachal Pradesh.
Most of the Hill towns are located in this Himachal range eg : Shimla, Nainital, Mussoruri, Darjeeling etc.
All great valleys like Kashmir valley, Kangra Valley , Kullu Valley are present here.
Shiwalik is the southernmost range of Himalayas located between the great palins and lesser Himalayas. These ranges are also known as Manak range.
The average altitude of this range is 900 – 1200 meters with width varying from 50 km in Himachal Pradesh declining to 15 km in Arunanchal Pradesh.
Shiwaliks are composed of unconsolidated sediments brought down by rivers from northen Himalayan ranges. Moreover, they are almost unbroken chain of low hills except a gap 80 km which is occupied by the valley of Tista river and Raidak river.
Duns: The longitudinal valley lying between lesser Himalaya and the shiwalik are known as Duns .Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun, Patli Dun are well known examples .`Dun ´ is a local word for valley.Dun lies between two intermittent ranges of the Himalayas as it formed as a result of folding when Eurasian plate and Indian plate collided.
Duars:alsospelled Dwars or Dooars, region of northeastern India, at the foot of the east-central Himalayas. It is divided by the Sankosh River into the Western and Eastern Duars. Both were ceded by Bhutan to the British at the end of the Bhutan War (1864–65). The Eastern Duars, in western Assam state, comprises a level plain intersected by numerous rivers and only slightly populated. The Western Duars lies in northern West Bengal state and is a portion of the Tarai, a lowland belt linking the Himalayas and the plains region. The Western Duars is an important centre of the tea industry. The name Duars (“Doors”) is derived from the several passes that lead from the region into the Lesser Himalayas. Area 3,400 square miles (8,800 square km).
Choos: The Eastern part of Shivalik range upto Nepal is covered with thick forests but the forest cover becomes thin in the West. The southern slopes of this range is almost devoid of forest cover becomes thin in the west.
The southern slopes of this range are almost devoid of forest cover in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh and are highly dissected by seasonal stream. Such Streams are locally known as Chhos, especially in Hoshiarpur District.
The Trans-Himalayas lie north of Great Himalayas. The Karakoram Range is the most prominent range and extends from the Pamir Knot eastwards into Tibet where it is known as the Kailash Range. K2, Mt. Godwin Astin, the world’s second highest peak (8,611 m), is located in the Kara Koram Range. There are many large snow-fields and glaciers in the Kara Koram Range. The Siachen Glacier is the largest in the region.
South of the Kara Koram are two parallel ranges of lower altitude called the Ladakh and Zaskar Ranges. The river Indus flows in a narrow valley between them.
Lie in a north-south direction along the eastern borders of India. Their average elevation is less than 3,000 metres. They are known by different local names such as the Patkai, the Naga Hills, the Manipur Hills, Lushai Hills, the Mizo Hills, the Tripura Hills and Garo Hills. The Khasi-Jaintia Hills.
The Sillong plateau comprising of Garo, Khasi and Jayantia hills is geologically a part of Peninsular plateau separated form it by the Malda Fault.
From west to East, Himalayas have been divided into six regions viz. Kashmir Himalayas, Himachal Himalayas, Kumaun Himalayas, Central & Sikkim Himalayas, Arunachal Himalayas and Purvachal Himalayas.
the 560 km long stretch of the Himalaya between the Indus and the Sutluj rivers is known as the Punjab Himalayas. A large portion of this sector lies in J&K and Himachal Pradesh as a result of which it is also called the Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya. Karakoram, Ladakh, Pir Panjal, Zaskar and Dhaula Dahar are the main ranges of this section.
The Kashmir Himalayas have the largest number of Glaciers in India. The Ladakh region of the Kashmir Himalayas is India’s Cold Desert Biosphere reserve.
A special feature of the valleys of Kashmir Himalayas is the Karewa deposits which are made up of silt, clay and sand.
The Karewas are known for saffron cultivation and have orchards of fruits and dry fruits such as apple, peach, almond, and walnut.
The major characters of Kashmir Himalayas are Glaciers, snow peaks, deep valleys and High Mountain passes.
The important passes are Pir-Panjal, Banihal, Zoji-La, Saser-La, Chang-La, Jara-La etc.
Himachal Himalayas are spread in Himachal Pradesh. The Rohtang, Bara-Lacha, Shipki-La are important passes joining India and China.
The valleys of Kullu, Kangra, Manali, Lahaul, Spiti are known for orchards and tourist spots.
Kumaun Himalayas are located between the Sutlej and Kali rivers. They are home to India’s
highest peak Nanda Devi.Other peaks located in Kumaun Himalayas are Kamet, Trishul, Badrinath, Kedarnath,Dunagiri, Gangotri etc. Gangotri and Pindar are important glaciers.
The western part of Kumaon Himalaya is known as Garhwal Himalayan while East as Kumaon. Geographically, Garhwal Himalaya lies between the lat. 29°31′ 9” N and 31°26′ 5″N and long. 77°33′ 5″E and 80°6′ 0″E with a total geographical area of 29,089 km.
Sikkim Himalayas are located beyond the Kali River up to the Teesta River. Most of them are
located in Nepal and known as Central Himalayas. These Himalayas are home to highest peaks
of Himalayas such as Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Dhaulagiri, Annapurna It is characterized by very few passes. Two passes viz. Nathu La and Jelep-La are important as they connect India’s Sikkim to Tibet of China.
The Eastern Himalayas occupy the Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan. The important hills in this
region are Aka Hills, Daphla Hills, Miri Hills, Mishmi Hills, Namcha Barwa The Dihang and Debang passes of Arunachal Pradesh are its parts.Passing from Arunachal Pradesh, there is an eastward extension of the Himalayas in thenorth-eastern region of India. This is known as Purvanchal Hills. Purvanchal Hills comprisesthe Patkai hills, the Manipur hills, Bairal range, the Mizo hills and the Naga hills. It is a densely
forested area, mainly composed of strong sandstones.
Fact File of Mount Everest
Alternate Names
Sagarmatha (Nepal) ,Chomolangma (TIbet)
Altitude
29,035 feet, 8850 meters
Location
27' 59' N Latitude, 86' 56' E Longitude
Best time to visit
April, May (pre-monsoon)
Year first climbed
1953
First Climbers
Edmund Hillary,Tenzing Norgay
Nearest Airport
Kathmandu, Nepal
Western Himalayas
Eastern Himalayas
1. Extends till west of River Kali (around 80°E
Longitude).
2. Height of the mountains from the plains in this
part rises in a number of stages. The high mountain
ranges are at a long distance from the plains
3. Amount of rainfall here is less and is 1/4th of
that of Eastern Himalayas.
4. The dominant vegetation in the western
Himalayas is Coniferous forests and alpine
vegetations. The Natural vegetation reflects the
impact of lower rainfall.
5. The altitude of the Western Himalayas is
higher than the Eastern Himalayas
6. Snowline is HIGHER than Eastern Himalayas
7. Western Himalayas receive more precipitation
from northwest in the winters
8. Less biodiversity in comparison to eastern
Himalayas
1. This is considered to be ranging from east of
the Singalila ranges in Sikkim (88°E Longitudes)
to eastern boundaries of Himalayas.
2. This part rises abruptly from the plains, thus
peaks are not faraway from the plains (Example:
Kanchenjunga)
3. This region received 4 times more rainfall
than western Himalayas. Due to high rainfalls, it
is covered with dense forests.
4. Snowline is LOWER than Western Himalayas
5. Eastern Himalayas receive more
precipitation from south-eastern monsoon in the
summers.
6. Much ahead from western Himalayas in
terms of Biodiversity and is one of the
Biodiversity hotspots
Western Himalayas are above 36°N Lat. (Mt. Godwin-Austin), and eastern Himalayas are below 28°N Lat. (Kanchenjunga). Thus the 8° difference in the latitude between the two ends of the Himalayas has affected the altitude of the regional snowline so that it is lower in western Himalayas and higher in the east.
The difference in the observed level of the snowline in western and eastern Himalayas is also due to yearly changes in the climatic conditions of the region. In the Himalayas, volume of precipitation changes from year to year, and with that the altitude at which snow falls also changes. In the years of high precipitation, often snow falls at lower altitude than the years of low precipitation.
The Great Plains stretch in an east-west direction between the Himalayas in the north and the Peninsular Plateaus in the south. They have been formed by the depositional work mainly of rivers, the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmputra and are often termed as Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmputra Plains. The Plains extend for 3,200 kilometers between the mouths of the Ganga and the Indus, all along the foot of the mountains, with a width varying from 150 to 500 kilometers covering an area of over seven lakh square kilometers.These plains constitute one of the largest aggradational surfaces in the world.
Their average depth is 1,300 - 1,400 m. Depending upon the differences in the surface relief, the plains are divided into following four divisions:-
(i) Bhabar
(ii) Terai
iii) Bhangar
(iv) Khadar
Lies along the foot of the Shiwaliks from the Indus to the Tista. It is narrow belt 8 to 16 kms wide comprising of pebble-studded rocks in the shape of porous beds. These beds are laid down by streams coming from the belts. The porosity of this zone is so high that all streams disappear here. The pebbled beds are usually parallel to the slope of the river beds.
is situated to the south of the Bhabar and runs parallel to it. It is marked by the re-emergence of the underground streams of the Bhabar belt. The alluvium deposited here is finer than that deposited in the Bhabar. It is an area of excessive dampness. Large stretches are marshy areas due to re-emergence of underground streams. Thick forests with a variety of wild life are found here. Most of the Terai land has been reclaimed and turned into agricultural land.
The flood plains which have newer alluvium is called Khadar. A new layer of alluvium is deposited by river floods almost every year. The Khadar is often characterized by fertile soil and intensive agriculture and is found adjacent to river banks.
Bhabar
Terai
The Bhabhar lies at the foot of Siwaliks from Indus to Tista.
The Terai lies to the south of Bhabhar running parallel to it.
The Bhabar is a perbble studded region, accounting for the high porosity.
Composed of finer sediments.
The high porosity is responsible for many streams getting lost in the Bhabar.
The Terai is the region of emergence of streams and is marshy and waterlogged.
Bhangar
Khadar
It is a highland composed of old alluvium
It is lowland composed of new alluvium.
It is always above the level of flood plains
It undergoes flooding almost every year and new alluvium is deposited.
It is often impregnated with calcareous concretions called kankar
The soil is clayey and fertile.
Dark brown and less fertile
Yellowish in colour and very fertile
Locally called as dhayas in Punjab
Locally called as bets in Punjab.
The depositional work by numerous rivers since the Pleistocene age has resulted in the formation of cones and inter-cones. The cones or alluvial fans are formed over a triangular space from the point where a river leaves the hills and enters the flat surface. The base of this triangular cone lies towards the edge of the plain and its apex lies towards the hills. These cones are generally convex in form. The inter-cones are just reverse to cones, their apex towards the edge of the plain & their base near the junction of the hills and the plain. They are concave in form. With successive deposition, the cones & inter-cones merge with each other in some areas &alluvial fans are formed. All the Himalayan rivers except the Ghaghara form cones & inter-cones. The best examples of cones and inter-cones is found in the north Bihar plain where three cones of the Gandak, Kosi & Mahahada-Tista are separated by inter-cones.
Thar Desert or Great Indian Desert is the world’s ninth largest desert. It forms a significant portion of western India and covers an area of about 200,000 km² to about 238,700 km². In Pakistan is continues as Cholistan Desert. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in Rajasthan, covering 61% of geographic area of Rajasthan. About 10 percent of this region comprises sand dunes, and the remaining 90 percent consist of craggy rock forms, compacted salt-lake bottoms, and interdunal and
fixed dune areas. Annual temperatures can range from 0°C in the winter to over 50°C during the summer. Most of the rainfall received in this region is associated with the short July–September southwest monsoon that brings around 100–500 mm of precipitation. Water is scarce and occurs at great depths, ranging from 30 to 120 m below the ground level. Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below 120 mm in the extreme west to 375 mm eastward. The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary as per the topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier and may have a hard pan of clay, calcium carbonate or gypsum.
The Peninsular India can be divided into four regions viz. Central Highlands, Deccan Plateau, Western Ghats or Sahayadri and Eastern Ghats.
The northern central highlands of peninsular India include the Aravalli’s, the Malwa Plateau, and some parts of Vindhyan Range.
The Malwa Plateau the triangular portion lying north-west of Narmada-Tapi rivers & the Vindhyachal Range is known as the Malwa Plateau. To its north-west are the Aravali Hills and to the north-east is the Ganges Plain. This is composed of hard rocks like granite & is generally 800 metres above sea level. The further extensions of this plateau are the Bundelkhand[2], the Rohilkhand and the Chhota Nagpur Plateau.
The western & the north-western flank of the plateau is occupied by the Aravalis, relict mountain range much denuded & forming discontinuous ridges. The Aravalis run for a distance of about 800 kms from Ahmedabad to Delhi. It reaches its maximum height of 1722 at Guru Shikhar in Mt. Abu. Having a north-east south-west axis, the Aravalis from discontinuous ridges between Gujarat & Delhi. On the periphery of the Vindhyan upland to the west of the Aravali Range lies the sandy waste of the Thar Desert. This is an area of arid topography with a vast expanse of crescent-shaped sand dunes called Barchans. These sand dunes give way to the longitudinal sand ridges in Jaisalmer and beyond the Indo Pakistan border in Sind.
The Vindhyan range is bounded by the Central Highlands on the south and the Aravalis on thenorthwest. It extends from Jobat (Gujarat) and Chittorgarh (Rajasthan) to Sasaram in Bihar for about 1050 km with general elevation between 450 to 600 metres. The western end of the Vindhyan range is in Gujarat at the eastern side of the Gujarat peninsula, near the border with Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Reaching the sub-continent proper, the range runs east and north nearly to the Ganges Rivernor at Mirzapur. The area to the north and west of the range are arid and inhospitable, located in the shadow of both the Vindhya and the higher Aravalli range to the south blocking the prevailingwinds.
The southern slopes of the Vindhyan Range are drained by the Narmada River, which proceeds westward to the Arabian Sea in the wide valley between the Vindhya Range and the parallel SatpuraRange farther to the south. The northern slopes of the range are drained by tributaries of the Ganges, including the Kali Sindh, Parbati, Betwa, & Ken (both are tributary of the Yamuna, ), Son & Tamsa or Tons both are tributary of the Ganges, drains the southern slopes of the range at its eastern end.
The Satpura range parallels the Vindhya Range to the north, and these two east-west ranges divide Indian Subcontinent into the Indo-Gangetic plain of northern India and the Deccan Plateau of the south. Satpura range rises in eastern Gujarat state near the Arabian Sea coast, running east through the border of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh to the east till Chhattisgarh.
The Narmada River originates from north-eastern end of Satpura & runs in the depression between the Satpura and Vindhya ranges, draining the northern slope of the Satpura range and southern slopes of Vindhyan range, running west towards the Arabian Sea.
The Tapti River originates from eastern-central part of Satpura, crosses the range in the center & further runs at the southern slopes of Satpura towards west meeting the Arabian Sea
at Surat, draining central & the southern slopes of the Satpura Range.
Please note that Mount Dhupgarh or Dhoopgarh is the highest point in the Satpura Range and in Madhya Pradesh, India. Located near Pachmarhi, it has an elevation of 1,350 metres.
Chhotanagpur Plateau covers much of Jharkhand state. It also covers the adjacent parts of Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar and Chhattisgarh. The Indo-Gangetic plain lies to the north and east of the plateau, and the basin of the Mahanadi River lies to the south. The total area of the Chhotanagpur Plateau is approximately 65,000 square kilometres. This Plateau consists of three steps. The highest step is in the western part of the plateau, ranging from 3,000 -3500 feet. The next part contains larger portions of the old Ranchi and Hazaribagh districts and some parts of old Palamu district, before these were broken up into smaller administrative units. The general height is 2,000 feet. The lowest step of the plateau is at an average level of around 1,000 feet, covering the old Manbhum and Singhbhum districts.
The Chhotanagpur Plateau is composed of Archaean granite and gneiss rocks with patches of Dharwar and Damuda series of the Gondwana Period, and the lava flow of the Cretaceous Period. The western higher plateau of the Chhotanagpur Plateau is called Pat region. It is believed to be composed of Deccan lava. The largest part of the Chhotanagpur Plateau is called Ranchi Plateau.
Damodar River originates here and flows through a rift valley.D amodar basin forms a trough between the Ranchi and Hazaribagh plateaus resulting from enormous fractures at their present edges, which caused the land between to sink to a great depth and incidentally preserved from denudation the Karanpura, Ramgarh and Bokaro coalfields. The plateau is covered with a variety tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests of which Sal forest is predominant. The plateau is home to the Palamau Tiger Reserve. Chhotanagpur plateau is a store house of minerals like mica, bauxite, copper, limestone, iron ore and coal. The Damodar valley is rich in coal and it is considered as the prime centre of coking coal in the country. Massive coal deposits are found in the central basin spreading over 2,883 km2. The important coalfields in the basin are Jharia, Raniganj, West Bokaro, East Bokaro, Ramgarh, South Karanpura and North Karanpura.
Karbi-Meghalya plateau is in fact an extension of the main Indian peninsular plateau and are originally two different plateaus – Karbi Anglong plateau and Meghalya plateau. It is believed that due to the force exerted by the north-eastwardly movement of the Indian plate at the time of the Himalayan origin, a huge fault was created between the Rajmahal hills and the Karbi-Meghalaya plateau. Later, this depression was filled up by the depositional activity of numerous rivers. Today the Maghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateau remains detached from the main Peninsular block. This area receives maximum rainfall from the South-West monsoon.
This is again a triangular plateau located in the south of river Tapi. Its north-west boundary is demarcated by the Satpura and Vindhyachal ranges while its northern border is flanked by the Mahadev and the Maikala ranges. It is flanked by western & eastern Ghats respectively. Its average altitude is 600 metres although it rises to 1000 metres in the south and slopes down to 500 metres in the north. The general slope of this plateau is from west to east, that is why most of the rivers of the plateau flow from west to east. The Narmada & Tapi are the two exceptions which flow from east to west.
The north-western part of Deccan plateau is known as the Deccan Trap. It has been formed by the flow of lava occurred during volcanic activities. The trap is made up of basalt & igneous rock. The black soil of the trap is ideal for cotton cultivations.
The Deccan lava plateau gives way to Karnataka Plateau of gneiss & granite formations. The general elevation of the plateau varies between 450-800 metres but, in the north, it attains an altitude of upto 1000. The Malnad and the Maidan are two sub-divisions of the Karnataka Plateau. The Malnad in the west is thickly forested upland having Baba Budhan as its highest peak. Maidan is a roiling plateau with low relief.
It extends from the Tapi river in the north to Kanya Kumari in the South and forms and western boundary of the Deccan Plateau. Its total length is 1500 kms and its width varies from 50 kms in the north to nearly 80 kms in the south. Its average altitude is about 900-1100 metres above sea level. It forms almost a continuous wall and can be crossed only through gaps. These gaps are the Thalghat, Bhorghat, Palghat. These gaps are used by rail routes. The southern part of the Western Ghats is characterized by the presence of the Nilgiri, the Anamalai and the Cardamom Hills[3]. The Anai Mudi (2695 metres) and the Doda Betta (2637 metres) are two important peaks of these hills.
Western Ghats are spread in six states viz. Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and two Union Territories viz. Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Pondicherry. The range starts near the border of Gujarat south of Tapti river where foothills of the ranges are occupying the eastern portion of Dadra and Silvassa in D&N. Running around 1600 kilometers down south, it ends at its southern part at Anamudi peak in Kerala. Mahe in Pondicherry is situated on the Malabar coast on the Western Ghats surrounded by Kerala Mountains.
Western Ghats are known as Sahyadri in northern Maharashtra,S ahya Parvatam in Kerala and Nilagiri Malai in Tamil Nadu. Western Ghats are home to many hill stations like Matheran,Lonavala-Khandala, Mahabaleshwar, Panchgani, Amboli Ghat, Kudremukh and Kodagu.
The extreme northern parts of Western Ghats falls in the Dangs district of Gujarat, known for Dang (Bamboo) forests. The confluence of the Eastern and the Western Ghats is at Biligirirangan Hills in Karnataka. Anamudi 2,695 metres in Kerala the highest peak in Western Ghats. Mullayanagiri is the
highest peak in Karnataka 1,950 meters. The smaller ranges of the Western Ghats include the Cardamom Hills and the Nilgiri Hills. Cardamom hills are located in southeast Kerala and southwest Tamil Nadu. They conjoin the Anaimalai Hills to the northwest, the Palni Hills to the northeast and the Agasthyamalai Hills to the south as far as the Ariankavu pass. The crest of the hills forms the boundary between Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Anamudi is also located in Cardamom Hills. The Nilgiri Hills are home to the hill station Ooty.
There are many important passes in Western Ghats such as Tamhini Ghat, Palakkad Gap, Naneghat, Kasara ghat etc.
The northern portion of the narrow coastal plain between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is known as the Konkan Coast, the central portion is called Kanara and the southern portion is called Malabar region or the Malabar Coast. The foothill region east of the Ghats in Maharashtra is known as Desh, while the eastern foothills of the central Karnataka state is known as Malenadu.
There are two views regarding the Geology of the Western Ghats. One view says the mountains of the Western Ghats are Block Mountains formed due to the down warping of a part of land into the Arabian Sea. Other view says that the mountains of the Western Ghats are not true mountains, but are the faulted edge of the Deccan Plateau. Major rocks found in the region include Basalt, charnockites, granite gneiss, khondalites, leptynites, metamorphic gneisses with detached occurrences of crystalline limestone, iron ore, dolerites and anorthosites.
The rivers that originate in Western Ghats and flow towards west are Periyar, Bharathappuzha, Netravati, Sharavathi, Mandovi etc. The west flowing rivers of Western Ghats are fast-moving,
owing to the short distance travelled and steeper gradient. This makes Western Ghats more useful than Eastern Ghats in terms of production of hydroelectricity. The steep gradient makes the Jog Falls
on Shravasthi River in Karnataka as one of the most spectacular waterfalls in India. Narmada and Tapti although don’t rise from Western Ghats but flow westwards.
The rivers that originate in Western Ghats and flow towards east include three major rivers viz.Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri, and many smaller / tributary rivers such as Tunga, Bhadra, Bhima,Malaprabha, Ghataprabha, Hemavathi, Kabini. These east flowing rivers are comparatively slower moving and eventually merge into larger rivers such as the Kaveri and Krishna.
In comparison to the eastern side, the western side of the Western Ghats is area of high rainfall because the mountains intercept the rain-bearing westerly monsoon winds. The dense forests also contribute to high orographic precipitation. The climate is humid and tropical in the lower reaches tempered by the proximity to the sea. Elevations of 1,500 m and above in the north and 2,000 m and above in the south have a more temperate climate. Average annual temperature here is around 15 °C.
In some parts frost is common, and temperatures touch the freezing point during the winter months.
Mean temperature range from 20 °C in the south to 24 °C in the north. It has also been observed that the coldest periods in the south Western Ghats coincide with the wettest.
During the monsoon season between June and September, the unbroken Western Ghats chain acts as a barrier to the moisture laden clouds. The heavy, eastward-moving rain-bearing clouds are forced to rise and in the process deposit most of their rain on the windward side. Rainfall in this region averages 3,000–4,000 mm. The eastern region of the Western Ghats which lie in the rain shadow, receive far less rainfall averaging about 1,000 mm bringing the average rainfall figure to 2,500 mm.
Eastern Ghats or Purbagha?a are a discontinuous range of mountains along India’s eastern coast.
They run from West Bengal through Orissa and Andhra Pradesh to Tamil Nadu in the south passing some parts of Karnataka. They are eroded and cut through by the four major rivers of southern India, the Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri. The mountain ranges run parallel to the Bay of Bengal. The Deccan Plateau lies to the west of the range, between the Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats.
State
Coastline
Gujarat
1915
Andhra Pradesh
1037
Tamil Nadu
864
Kerala
560
Maharashtra
510
Odisha
457
West Bengal
374
The West Coastal Plain spreads from Gujarat to the Kanya Kumari. Going from north to south it goes on narrowing. It is uneven & has been dissected by numerous fast-flowing rivers — the Narmada & the Tapti are among them. The plain is divided into two parts - the northern & the southern. The northern part from Gujarat to Goa is called Konkan,Also known as kanara is goa and along kerala is known as Malabar (from Goa to Kanya Kumari). Konkan is 50-80 kms wide and characterized with estuaries while Malabar is characterized with lagoon and backwaters.
West Coast
East Coast
Between Arabian Sea and Western Ghats
Between Eastern Ghats and Bay of Bengal
Stretches from Rann of Kachchh to Kanyakumari.
Stretches from Sundarbans to Kanyakumari.
Comparatively narrow
Comparatively wider
Along Gujarat coastal plain, Konkan coast and Malabar coast
Along Coromondel coast and North Sircar(Utkal) coastal plains
Deltas are either absent or too narrow
Deltas are formed in this coastal stretch
Highly influenced by the south west monsoon
Influenced by north east monsoons
the Kutch region is made up of Ranns which is basically a salt encrusted wasteland just a few meters above sea level. It gets denudated in the monsoon. It is divided into Great Rann in the north and Little Rann in the east. Between Great Rann and Rocky mainland lies the Banni Plains.
The above discussion makes it clear that plains of Gujarat cover almost the entire state of Gujarat, except two districts viz. Banaskantha and Sabarkantha. These plains have become mainly due to the alluvial deposits of Sabarmati, Mahi, Luni and other rivers and also the depositional activity of winds. Luni and Banas rivers discharge into Rann forming inland drainage during rainy season, both of them are inland rivers.
The East Coastal Plain. Along the Bay of Bengal, there extends a comparatively wide & level plain from Orissa to the Kanya Kumari known as the East Coastal Plain. It also has two parts - the northern and southern. The northern part is North Circar plain and the southern is Coromandal plain. The Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery are major rivers which originate from the great plateau and form deltas at the mouth. A chain of bars is found along the coast that has given birth to numerous lagoons. The Chilka & the Pulicat present good examples of lagoons.
They represent an emergent coast while it‘s western counterpart is an example of submerging coast. The region receives both the Northeast and Southwest
monsoon rains with its annual rainfall averaging between 1,000 mm and 3,000 mm. The width of the plains varies between 100 to 130 kilometers. The region isw ider, gets more rainfall, more hot andhumid, more discontinuous and more fertile & irrigated in comparison to the western plains.At places the plains are bordered with dunes. Mangrove forests also grow in this region. Lagoons are also found here.
There are a number of small islands in the Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea & the Gulf of Mannar.
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands extending for a length of more than 500 km are the summits of the mountain ranges rising from the ocean floor, believed to be extensions of the mountain system in the northeastern part of the country.. Some of these islands like Barren Islands are of volcanic crigin. The Ten Degree Channel separates the Andaman group of Islands from the Nicobar group. Indira Point in the Nicobar Islands is the southernmost point of the Indian Union.
The Andaman group of islands comprises of 572 islands such as North Andaman, Middle Andaman, South Andaman, Baratang, and Little Andaman in the Bay of Bengal
It is a group of islands in the form of a narrow broken chain which forms a north-south arc. The two important groups of islets are Ritchie's Archipelago and Labyrinth Islands.The islands attain maximum altitude at Saddle Peak (730 m). It covers the geographical area of 6408 sq km. The rainforests make the Andamans rich in timber, which is one one of its major source of income. The people of Andaman are engaged in agriculture and grow paddy as the main crop with other field crops namely pulses, oilseeds and vegetables. Spices like cloves, nutmeg , pepper, and cinnamon rubber, red oil, palm and cashew are also grown by the people.Tourism and fishery are its other sources of income. The important industries in Andamans are Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) conduit pipes and fittings, fiberglass, paints and varnishes, steel furniture, soft drinks and beverages. Due to its fragile eco system major industrialization is not possible. These islands are also inhibited by endangered tribes like onges, jharawas and sentinalese etc.
The Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea are tiny islands of coral origin located about 350 km off the Kerala Coast, and built by small marine organisms called coral polyps which live in shallow tropical ocean waters. Some of these islands which are ring-shaped are called atolls. Lakshwadeep is the smallest Union Territory of India and is located in The Arabian Sea. It consists of twelve coral atolls, three coral reefs, five banks, and numerous islets, and is under the jurisidiction of Kerala High Court.
Lakshadweep is one of the favorite tourist spot in India. Kavaratti is the capital of Lakshadweep.
The total area of Lakshadweep is 32 sq. km. There are ten inhabited islands and 17 uninhabited islands in Lakshadweep. Fishing, coconut cultivation and coir twisting are some of the major occupation of the inhabitants of these islands.
The Rameswaram Island Lies between India & Sri Lanka. South of Rameswaram there are other small coral islands lying parallel to the coast.
[1]Doab is the region between two rivers and hence thich alluvial deposits are found here. They are extremely fertile like the Bist ( Beas-Satluj) and Rechna ( Ravi-Chenab) boabs.
[2]Bundelkhand region is known for Badland topography or ravines.
[3]Nilgiri, the Anamalai and the Cardamom Hills are together known as southern hill complex and are famour for their spice, tea, rubber etc.
[4]Lagoons are salt water lakes, separated from the main sea by sand bars & spits.
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