THE REVOLT OF 1857

Socio Religious Movements

THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

SWADESHI MOVEMENT

The Moderates and the Extremists

Morley Minto Reforms

 

1914-1947

• After Tilak’s return having served sentence of six years in Mandalay he tried securing the readmission of himself and other Extremists into the Indian National Congress.  With the need being felt for popular pressure to attain concessions, disillusionment with Morley-Minto Reforms and wartime miseries, Tilak and Annie Besant readied to assume leadership.  The Home Rule League was pioneered on lines of a similar movement in Ireland.

Objective

• The objective of Home Rules League was
• Self Government for India in British Empire.
• Work for National Education, Social and Political reforms.
• Tilak linked up the question of swaraj with the demand for the formation of linguistic states and education in vernacular.  He also used Home Rule to put an end to caste feeling among the common people and advocated abolition of untouchability.
• Tilak (April) and Annie Beasnt and S. Subramaniam lyer (September) established Home Rule Leagues in 1916.
• Tilak’s League was to work in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central Provinces and Berar and Annie Besant’t in the rest of India.
• Annie Besant set up the newspapers – New India, Commonweal and Young India (1916).
• Tilak published – Mahratta & Kesari .
• Jamnadas Dwarkadas, Shankarlal Banker, Indulal Yagnik, George Arundate, B.P. Wadia and L.P. Ramaswamy Iyer were in Besant’s League.
• Home Rule Movement declined after Besant accepted the proposed Montford Reforms and Tilak went to Britain to fight the Libel suit against Valentine Chirol’s Indian Unrest.

Methods

• Create public opinion in favour of Home Rule through public meeting, also organising discussions, reading rooms propaganda through public meetings, newspaper, pamphlets, posters, etc.
• Positive Gains Emphasis shifted to the masses permanently organizational link established between town and country prepared a generation of ardent nationalists, influenced Moderate-Extremist reunion at Lucknow (1916).
• Lucknow Session – (1916)  (Presided by Ambika Chaarn Mazumdar) Lucknow Pact  Pact (1916) was signed between the INC and the Muslim League.  The main provisions
• (a)  Principle of separate elections was accepted,
• (b)  Demand for a representative government and Dominion Status for India.

• This Act authorized the Government to imprison any person without trail and conviction of the court of law. 
• This law also enabled the Government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, which had been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain.
• Anti-Rowlatt Satyagraha intended to mobilize public opinion against the Act.
• It was first countrywide agitation by Gandhi and marked the foundation of Non Cooperation Movement.
• During March and April 1919, the country witnessed a remarkable political awakening in India.  There were hartals, strikes procession and demonstrations. 
• On April 13, 1919 (Baisakhi Day), Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Satyapal were addressing a peaceful rally in Jallianwala Bagh when General Dyer ordered for the infamous massacre.
• The Hunter Commission’s report on the Punjab disturbances was described by Gandhi as a ‘white wash’.
• Tagore returned his knighthood in protest.
• Sardar Udham Singh who took the name of Ram Mohammed Singh murdered Dyer in England.

The Earlier Phase

• South Africa :  (a)  1907 Satyagraha against compulsory registration and passes for Indians (b) 1910 Satyagraha against immigration restrictions, derecognition of non-Christian Indians  (b) 1910 Satyagraha against immigration restrictions, derecognition of non-christian Indian marriages while deciding the cases of new entrants and 3% tax on exindentured labourers.
• Literary Influences on Gandhi : John Ruskin’s Unto the Last, Emerson, Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy, the Bible and the Bhagvad Gita.
• Appeal of Gandhi :
• He was already a leader of action who had achieved results in South Africa.
• The social composition of Indians in S. Africa made him an all India figure while the Lal-Bal-Pal, trio were essentially regional leaders.
• The doctrine of ahinsa mediated internal differences contributing to a joint nationalist struggle.
• Gandhi’s social utopia was a critique of Industrialism appealed to those alienated by it.
• The use of the Indian idiom (eg Ram Rajya) helped in communication.
• Rumours greatly enhanced his stature. 

Gandhi in Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda

• The story of Champaran (Bihar) begins in the early 19th century when Europeans planters had involved the cultivators in agreements that forced them to cultivate indigo in 3/20th of their holdings (Tin-Kathia).  But when indigo became unremunerative, the European planters imposed higher taxes to compensate their losses in the international trade at that time.  Gandhi (in July 1917) was successful in abolishing the Tin-Kathia system and refund was made to the cultivators.
• In Ahmedabad (March 1918) the dispute was between the mill owners and workers over the ‘plague bonus’ which the former wanted to withdraw once the epidemic was over. The workers troubled by inflation wanted adequate compensation.  Gandhi initially persuaded the mill owners and workers to agree to arbitration by a tribunal but the mill owners withdraw after commitment. Gandhi then advised the workers to go on strike and he under took hunger strike after which the mill owners were pressurised into accepting the tribunal award of 35 percent increase.
• The peasants of Kheda district (1917-1918) were in extreme distress due to a failure of crops and the government ignored their appeals for the remission of land revenue.  The peasants of Kheda were already hard pressed because of plague, high prices and drought.
• Appeals and petition having failed Gandhi advised the withholding of revenue and asked the peasants of fight unto death.
• After the Government directed that revenue should be recovered only from those peasants who could pay, the movement was withdrawn.
• Gandhi undertook his first hunger strike at Ahmedabad (1918) for the mill wage hike of workers.
• His first Civil Disobedience movement was the Champaran Satyagraha.
• His first all-India Satyagraha was the Rowlatt Satyagraha.
• His first Non-Cooperation Movement was the Kheda Satyagraha.

• During the First World War, Turkey was allied with Germany and Austria against the British.  The Indian Muslims regarded the sultan of Turkey as their spiritual leaders. Khalifa, so naturally they sympathized with Turkey.  After the war, the British removed the Khalifa from power and fragmented Turkey.  Hence, the Muslims started the Khilafat movement in India for the restoration of the Khalifa’s position.  The demands were
• Khalifa’s control should be retained over the Muslim sacred places.
• After the post-war territorial adjustments, the Khalifa should be left with sufficient territories.

Khilafat Movement in India

• The Khilafat issue was not directly linked with politics in India but the Khilafat leaders (Ali Brother,s Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani) were eager in enlisting the support of Hindus.  Gandhi saw in this, an opportunity to bring about Hindu-Muslim unity against the British.
• The publications of the terms of the Treaty with Turkey, which were very harsh, and also the publication of the Hunter Committee Report on ‘Punjab disturbances’ in May 1920 infuriated the Indians.  Thus at one level Indian political situation also merged with the issue of Khilafat.
• Initially the Khilafat Leaders limited their actions to meetings, petitions, and deputations in favour of the Khilafat.  Later a militant trend emerged, demanding an active agitation such as stopping all cooperation with the British.
• The Central Khilafat Committee met at Allahabad.  The meting was attended by a number of Congress and Khilafat leaders.  In this meeting a programme of non-cooperation towards the government was declared.  This was to include
• Boycott of titles conferred by the Government,
• Boycott of civil services, army and police, i.e. all government jobs,
• Non-payment of taxes to the Government.
• August 1, 1920 was fixed as the date to start the movement.

The Non-Cooperation Movement

• It was the 1st Mass based political movement under Gandhi.
• The Movement was launched as per resolution of Calcutta session and ratified in Nagpur session December 1920.  Lucknow Pact, anti-Rowlatt Agitation, Jalianwala Bagh tragedy, Khilafat Movement, General economic, distress during and after the war were the reasons of Non-Cooperation Movement.
• The Tilak Swarajya Fund was started to the Non-Cooperation Movement.
• The main emphasis of the movement was on boycott of schools, colleges, law counts and advocacy of the use of Charkha.  There was widespread student unrest and top lawyers like C.R.Das and Motila Nehru gave up their legal practice.  Thereafter, the stress was on boycott of foreign cloth and boycott of the forthcoming visit of the Prince of Wales in November, 1921; popularization of Charkha and Khadi and Jail Bharo by Congress volunteers.
• Swaraj or self-rule, Redressal of Punjab wrongs and Khilafat issue were demanded through Non-Cooperation Movement.
• Non-Cooperation Movement progressed powerfully from January 1920 to Early February 1922.
• From November 1921, a shift towards radicalism was visible.  Gandhi decided to launch a no-revenue campaign at Bardoli, and also a mass civil disobedience movement for freedom of speech, press and association.
• The attack on a local police station by angry peasants at Chauri Chaura, in Gorakhpur district of UP, on Feburary 5, 1922, changed the whole situation.  Gandhi, shocked by this incident, withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Spread of NCM

United provinces

• Became a strong base of the Gandhian Non-Cooperation Movement. Organised non-cooperation was an affair of cities and small towns.  In the countryside the movement got entangled with the kisan movement.  The peasants rose in revolt not only against Talukdars but also, against merchants with widespread agrarian-riots under the leadership of Baba Ram Chandra.  In late 1921, ‘Eka’ movement under Madari Pasi started.  Demand was conversion of produce rents into cash.

Punjab

• Akali movement for reform and control of the Guruwaras got closely identified with non-cooperation.  Udasi Sikh Mahants, who managed Gurudwaras, had issued Hukumnamas against Ghadrites and honoured Dyer.  Akalis were led by Kartar Singh Jhabbar, Master Tara Singh and Baba Kharak Singh (head of SGPC).  The Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandha Committee was founded by the Shiromani Akali Dal.

Maharashtra

• Non-cooperation remanded relatively weak because the Tilakites were unenthusiastic about Gandhi.  Non-Brahmins too felt that the Congress was a Chitpavan-led affair.

Andhra

• The Non-Cooperation Movement attained success in the Andhra delta area.  Allun Sitaram Raju organised the tribals in Andhra and combined their demands with those of the Non-Cooperation Movement. Temple Entry for Ezhavas and Pulayas was led by Sir Narayan Guru, NK Asan and TK Madhavan.  In 1924, Vaikom Satyagraha in Travancore was led by KP Kesava Menon. 

• The youth had participated actively in the Swadeshi movement in the hope and belief that Extremist methods of agitation such as boycott and passive resistance would take the national movement out of its elitist groove.  The inability of the Extremist leadership to adequately analyse the weakness of the movement and their failure to suggest new ways out of the impasse further strengthened revolutionary ideas of assassination and dacoities.  Brutal repression of the Swadeshi movement by the Government too added to the trend of revolutionary terrorism.  The youth drew inspiration from Irish nationalists and the Russian Nihilists.

Ideology

• Assassinate unpopular officials, thus strike terror in hearts of rules and arouse people to expel the British physically, based on individual heroic and not by mass-based countrywide struggle.

Bengal

• 1902 – First revolutionary groups in Midnapore and Calcutta (The Anushilan Samiti).
• 1906 – Yugantar and Sandhya in Bengal, and Kal in Maharastra.
• 1908 – Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose attempt to murder Muzaffarpur Judge, Kingsford.  Alipore conspiracy case involving Aurobindo Ghosh, Barindra Kumar Ghosh and others.
• 1912 – Bomb thrown at Vicery Hardinge by Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal. 
• Anushilan Committee (a secret society) whose Dhaka section had 500 branches.
• Sandhya, Yugantar – newspapers advocating revolutionary activity.

Punjab

• Revolutionary activity by Lala Lajpat Rai, Ajit Singh, Aga Haidar Syed Haidar Raza, Bhai Parmanand, Lalchand ‘Falak’, Sufi Ambaprassad.

Abroad

• 1905    Shyamji Krishnavarma set up Indian Hose Rule Society and Indian House and brought out journal The Scoicologist in London.
• 1909    Madan Lal Dhingra murdered Curzon-Wyllie; Madame Bhikaji Cama operated from Paris and Geneva and brought out journal Bande Mataram.

Maharashtra

• Ramosi Peasant Force by Vasudev Balwant Phadke.
• 1890s  - Tilak’s attempts to propagate militancy among the youth through Shivaji and Ganpati festivals, and journals Kesri and Maharatta.
• 1897 – Chapeker brother assassinated two unpopular British Officials Rand, the plague commissioner of Poona and Lt. Ayerst.
• 1899 – V.D. Savarkar and his brother Ganesh organized as secret society Mitra Mela.  They were co-accused in Nasik and Gwalior Conspiracy cases.
• 1904 – Mitramela and Abhinav Bharat were merged.
• 1909 Jackson, District Magistrate of Nasik was assassinated.

Komagatu Maru incident

• In an attempt the defied, Canadian immigration laws, Gurdit Singh chartered a ship named Komagata Maru and with 376 Indian mainly (Sikh & Punjabi Muslim) set sail for Vanconver.  The Canadian authorities turned them back after months of privation and uncertainity.   The ship finally anchored at Calcutta in September 1914.  The inmates however, refused to board the Punjab bound train.  In the ensuing with the police at Budge – Budge , 22 persons died.  The incident fired up revolutionary activities which sought to avenge the death of the inocents. 

Revolutionary Terrorism during the 1st World War – The Gadar Movement

• The Gadar revolutionaries were recruited largely from the ranks of Punjabi immigrants who had settled on the West Coast of North America.  The hostile attitude of the local population including that of the white labour unions and the increasingly restrictive immigration laws pushed the Indian community to the realization that they must organise themselves if they were to resist the blatant racial discrimination being imposed on them.  The party was built around a weekly paper – the Gadar.
• The Gadar Programme included assassination of officials, publication of revolutionary literature and work among Indian troops abroad and raise funds.  The front page of each issue of Ghadar carried the slogan “Angrezi Raj Ka Kacha Chittha”.  It preached militant nationalist with a completely secular approach and the party was pledged to wage a revolutionary war against the British in India.  In North America,  the Ghadar was organized by Lala Hardayal, Kartar Singh Saraba, Barkatullah and Bhai Parmanand.  They attempted to bring about an armed revolt in India on February 21, 1915 amidst favourable conditions created by the outbreak of First World War and the Kamagata Maru incident. The plan was foiled due to treachery.
• Bagha Jatin organised revolutionary activity in Bengal and died in an encounter (1915) in Balasore.

The 2nd phase of revolutionary terrorism

Influences on Revolutionary Terrorism

• Upsurge of working class trade unionism after the war; the revolutionaries wanted to harness the revolutionary potential of the new emergent class for nationalist revolution.
• Russian revolution 1917
• Newly sprouting communist groups with their emphasis on Marxism socialism and proleteriat
• Journals extolling the self sacrifice of revolutionaries.

Hindustan republican army (hra)

• Sachin Sanyal, Jogesh Chatterjee and Ramprasad Bismil founded Hindustan Republican Army (HRA) at Kanpur in October 1924.  HRA aimed at organizing an armed revolution and establishing a Federal republic of the USA with a government elected on the basis of adult franchise. Sachine Sanyal wrote ‘Bandi Jivan’, Hindustan Republican Army was later renamed Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA).  Important action of Hindustan Republican Army was Kakori Robbery (August 1925).

Hindustan socialist republication association (hsra)

• It was founded in September 1928 at Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi under the leadership of Chandrashekhar Azad.  They were also influenced by socialist ideas.

Miscellaneous

• Bhagat Singh, Azad and Rajguru shot dead Saunders, the police official responsible for the lathicharge in Lahore.
• Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt threw bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929 to protest against the passage of the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill.  The objective was not to kill but to make the deaf hear.
• Bhagat Singh wrote : Why I Am an Atheist.
• Jatin Das (Sept, 1929) died after a prolonged fast in jail.
• After raiding Chittagong Armoury Surya Sen proclaimed the formation of Provisional Revolutionary Government and the Indian Republican Army, which fought at Jalalabad.
• Two schoolgirls Santi Ghosh and Sunidhi Chowdhary,  shot dead the DM, Stevens.
• Bina Das fired point black at the governor while receiving her degree at the convocation.
• Kalpana Datta  was arrested and tried along with Surya Sen.

Famous conspiracy cases

• Muzzafarpur Conspiracy – Attempt of Kingsford, Judge of Muzaffarpur by Prafful Chaki and Khudi Ram Bose in 1908.
• Alipore Conspiracy Case – Aurobindo Ghosh arrested.
• Delhi Conspiracy Case (1911) – Sanchin Sanyal and Rash Behari Bose were accused of attempting of assassinate Lord Hardinge.
• Peshawar Conspiracy Case (1922-23) – Many Muslim Muhajirs went to Moscow to receive communist and military training.  On their return they were caught and tried at Peshawar.
• Kanpur Conspiracy Case (1924) – British government started the case against four communists – Muzaffar Ahmed, S.A. Dange, Shaukat Usmani and Nalni Gupta.  The government alleged that the Communists wanted to deprive the British King of the sovereignty of British India.
• Kakori Conspiracy Case – On August 9, 1925, ten revolutionaries held up the 8 – Down train from Saharanpur to Lucknow at Kakori and looted its official railway cash.  Asfaquallah Khan, Ramprasad Bismil were hanged.
• Lahore Conspiracy Case – Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Raj Guru assassinated Saunders, a police official, at Lahore to avenge Lala Lajpat Rai’s death. (December 1928).
• Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929) – Bhagat Singh and Batukeswar Dutt were asked to throw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly on April 8th 1929 against the passage of Public Safety Bill and Trade Disputes Bill.

• After the debacle of Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922, a group of leaders (No-changers) : Ansari, Rajapogalachari, Kasturiranga Iyengar, Rajendra Prasad and Vallabha Bhai Patel) who still believed in Gandhian methods advocated on continuing Gandhian constructive rural work while anther group, the Pro-changers with such stalwarts like, Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das demanded Congress participation in council politics.  The Gaya session (1922) rejected council entry.  A compromise was struck by which Pro-changers were allowed to stand for elections even as their faith in the constructive programme was reiterated.
• Their immediate objective was ‘speedy attainment of full Dominion Status – Swaraj’ including ‘the right to frame a constitution with provincial autonomy.
• In the elections of 1923 the Das-Nehru group under the banner of the Swaraj Party emerged the single largest party in the Central Assembly, Bombay and Bengal Councils.
• The Swarajists pursued an obstructionist strategy to defeat all proposals for legislative enactments.
• C.R. Das died in 1925 and a section of Swarajists (NC Kelar, MR Jaykar, Lajpat Rai and Malaviya) turned responsivists.  Madan Mohan Malviya and Lala Lajpat Rai founded the Independent Congress Party and rallied the Hindus.  In 1933, it was reorganized at Congress Nationalist Party.
• In 1930 the Swarajists walked out of the Assemblies in accordance to the Lahore resolution.  The Swaraj Party now merged with the Congress as the country began to prepare for the second round of direct mass action to achieve complete independence. 

Drawbacks

• The Swarajists lacked a policy to coordinate their militancy insides the legislatures with the mass struggle outside.
• An obstructionist policy had its limitations.

 

Towards Civil Disobedient – Movement

Simon commission

• In 1927 the British (Lord Birkenhead was the Secy. of State) decided to appoint a commission to recommend further constitutional reforms.  The Indian protest was on the grounds that the commission headed by Sir John Simon was an “all white” commission.  Lord Birkenhead constantly talked of the inability of Indians to arrive at any consensus and that the British did not find any one from among the Indians fit enough to serve in a body that would make recommendation about India’s political future.  The commission’s arrival in India led to a powerful protest movement in which nationalist enthusiasm unity reached new heights.  On 3rd Feburary, the commission was greeted with hartals and black flag demonstrations.
• They could not carry with on white their coalition partners because of conflicting ideas

Nehru report

• To measure up to the challenge of the British the Report was tabled in 1928.  it remains memorable as the first major Indian effort to draft a constitutional framework for India complete with lists of central and provincial subjects and fundamental rights.
• It demanded responsible government both in the center and in the provinces.  But it advocated Dominion Status and not complete independence.
• It demanded universal adult suffrage.
• It rejected separate communal electorates.  It proposed reservation  for the Muslims at the centre and in provinces in which they were in minority.
• The report recommended equal rights for women, freedom to for unions, and dissociation of the state from religion in any form.
• Calcutta Session of INC in 1928 approved the report.  INC now wanted the English government to either accept or reject the recommendations of the suggested constitution based on Dominion status.  By Swaraj the Congress leaders had so far meant the Dominion Status for India within the ambit of British Empire.

Irwin Offer of 1929

• Dominion Status (DS) was a natural issue of Indian constitutional progress.
• A proposed Round Table Conference (RTC) after the publication of the Simon Report.

Lahore session (december 1929)

• Irwin talks broke down on the issue of Dominion Status, which the British were reluctant to concede immediately.  Jawaharlal Nehru replace Motilal Nehru as the INC President at Lahore and the major decisions taken at Lahore session.
• Round Table Conference to be boycotted.
• Purna-Swaraj or complete independence as the main aim of Congress.
• Launch a programme of civil disobedience including non payment of taxes.
• January 26th 1930 fixed as the 1st Independence day to be celebrated everywhere.
• On December 31, 1929 the tricolour was hoisted on the banks of Ravi.
• It was resolved that a Manifesto or pledge of Independence would be taken all over India by as many people as possible on January 26, 1930.

Civil disobedience movement

• After the INC authorized Gandhiji to start CDM, he placed Eleven Point Ultimatum to Irwin (31st January, 1930) for administrative reforms and stated that if Lord Irwin accepted them there would be no need for agitation.
• Civil Disobedience Movement started with the Dandi March on 12th March.  Salt production had geographical limitations.  So in other parts of the country the movement included – (a) Picketing of liquor shops and auctions (b)  No revenue campaign in Bardoli (c)  Forest Satyagrahas (d)  Large scale resignation of rural officials (e) Refusal of chaukidari tax  (f)  Prabhat Pheris-singing of national songs  (g) Patrikas-distribution of illegal pamphlets.

11 – point ultimatum

• Reduce expenditure on Army and civil services by 50%.
• Introduce total prohibition.
• Carry out reforms in Criminal Investigation Department (C.I.D.)
• Change Arms Act allowing popular control of issue of licences. 
• Release political prisoners.
• Accept Postal Reservation Bill
• Reduce rupee-sterling exchange ratio
• Introduce textile protection
• Reserve coastal shipping for Indians.
• Reduce land revenue by 50%
• Abolish salt tax. 

First round table conference (1931)

• First ever conference arranged between the British and Indians as equals.
• Congress and most business leaders kept away.
• Muslim League – represented by Mohammed Ali, Agha Khan, Fazlul Haq and Jinnah.
• Hindu Mahasabha – represented by Moonje and Jayakar.
• Liberals – represented by Sapru, Chintamani and Srinivas Sastri.
• Princes – represented by Akbar Hydari and Mirza Ismail, the Dewans of Hyderabad and Mysore respectively.
• With Incidents of rising violence and with majority of leading Congress leaders behind bars Gandhiji called for rather sudden retreat.  He initiated a talk with Irwin, which culminated in the Delhi Pact of 5th March popularly called Gandhi Irwin Pact.

Delhi pact gandhi-irwin pact

• Irwin agreed to release al political prisoners except Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev.
• Right to make salt in coastal villages for personal consumption.
• Gandhi agreed to suspend CDM and participate in 2nd session of RTC.

Second round table conference

• Gandhi agreed to attend the Second Round Table Conference scheduled to be held in September 1931.  He demanded control over defence and foreign affairs.  Hindu Mahasabha demanded federal responsibility which was opposed by Muslim League and the Princes.  Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for Dalits which was opposed by Gandhi.
• The Government refused to concede the basic nationalist demand of freedom on the basis of immediate grant of dominion status.
• The Second Round Table Conference ended with MacDonald’s announcement of :
• Two Muslim majority provinces – NWFP and Sindh
• Indian Consultation Committee was to be set up.
• Expert committees on Finance, Franchise and states.
• Prospect of Unilateral British Communal Award if Indians failed to agree.

Chronological of events in  CDM

• 12 March, 1930 – Dandi March was undertaken from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi.
• 18 April, 1930 – Chittagong Armoury was raided by Surya Sen.
• May 1930 – Textile workers strike at Sholapur.
• January 1931 – First Round Table Conference
• 5 March, 1931 – ‘Delhi Pact’ signed between Viceroy Irwin and Gandhi. 
• 23 March 1931 – Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev were executed.
• March 1931 (Karachi Congress) – It accepted Delhi Pact.  Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn.  The session also passed the resolution for Fundamental Rights and the Economic Policy.
• September-December 1931 – Gandhi participated in Second Session of the Round Table Conference.
• December 1931 – Gandhi returned and launched CDM but the movement was brutally suppressed by force.
• April 1934 – The movement was withdrawn formally.

Regional spread

• Chittagong : 18th April, armoury raid by Surya Sen.
• Peshawar :  23 April, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan’s Khudai Khidmatgar activated the NWFP leading to rioting where the Hindu Gharwal rifles refused to fire on Muslim rioters.
• Sholapur  news of Gandhis arrest (4th May) led to working class strike form 7th to 17th May.
• Darshana salt works (21 May) satyagraha led by Sarojini Naidu, Imam Saheb and Maniklal Gandhi.
• Madras : Rajagopala Chari led the March from Trichinopoly to Vedaranniyam.
• Kerala :  K. Kelappan marched from Calicut to Payannur.  Central Provinces had forest satyagrahas. 

Resumption of Civil Disobedience and withdrawal

• After returning from the second Round Table Conference empty handed, Gandhi restarted the Civil Disobedience Movement on 29th December 1931. Government imposed sweeping ordinances banning all Congress organisations.  On January 4, 1932 Congress leaders including Gandhi and Sardar Patel were arrested.  Press and National Literature was banned.
• Pretests included picketing of shops selling liquor and foreign cloth, non violent demonstrations, celebrations of national days, symbolic hoistings of national flag, non payment of chowkidari tax, salt satyagraha, forest law violations and installations of a secret radio near Bombay.  Civil Disobedience Movement coincided with upsurges in Kashmir and Alwar.
• Gandhi suspended Civil Disobedience temporarily in May 1933, and formally withdrew it in April 1934.  He then decided to make Harijan work the central plank of his new rural constructive programme.

Communal award and poona pact

• On August 16, 1932 McDonald announced the proposal on minority representation, known as the “Communal Award” which recommended :
• to double the existing seats in provincial legislatures,
• to retain the system of separate electorate for the minorities.
• to grant weightage to Muslims in provinces where they were in minority
• to reserve 3% seats for women in all provincial legislature except in NWEP
• to recognize depressed classes as minority community and make them entitled to the right of separate electrode, and
• to allocate seats to labour, landlords, and traders and industrialists.

Gandhi’s objections

• Gandhi reacted strongly to the proposal of granting the right of separate electorates to the Depressed Classes.  He regarded the Depressed Classes as an integral part of Hindu society.  He thought what was required was not protection of the depressed classes but root and branch eradication of untouchability.   He had pinned his hopes for their welfare in the firm belief that the Hindu would do full social justice to fully integrate them within their fold. He demanded that the depressed classes be elected through a joint and if possible a wider electorate through universal franchise.
• To persuade the recalcitrant Ambedkar to accept his viewpoint, Gandhi, then in the Yarvada Jail, resorted to fast unto death. In an anxiety to save his life, the Poona Pact with the following main terms was concluded between him and Ambedkar on 25th September 1932.
• 147 seats were to be allotted to the depressed classes in the provincial legislature as against 71 promised by the Communal Award and 18% of the total in central legislature.
• It was promised that a certain percentage of seats allotted to the general non-Muslim electorate would be reserved for the depressed class.
• Adequate representation for the depressed classes in the civil services.
• Ambedkar also accepted the principle of joint electorate.

Third RTC

• Third Round Table Conference was scheduled to be held in London (1932).  The congress did not participate in it.  The discussions led to the passing of the Government of India Act, 1935.

CDM compared to NCM

• Launched to attain Purna Swaraj and not merely to remedy wrongs.
• It involved deliberate violation of law and not merely non-cooperation.
• In the initial phase urban people participated but it spread to rural areas where it gained its maximum strength.
• Little Muslim and labour participation.
• Women participated on a large scale to picket shops.

Gandhi’s harijan campaign

• Gandhiji withdrew from the Civil Disobedience Movement to focus on Harijan welfare.  After the Poona Pact Gandhi stated an All India Anti – Untouchability League and the weekly newspaper, Harijan.
• Harijan welfare work by Gandhians indirectly helped to spread the message of nationalism down to the most oppressed sections of rural society.
• Gandhi confined the Harijan Campaign to limited social reform (opening of wells, roads, and particularly temples, plus humanitarian work) delinking it from any economic demands (though many Harijans were agricultural labourers,) and also refusing to attack caste as a whole.
• The Harijan Movement was formally withdrawn in April 1934.

Impact of CDM

• The Congress swept the polls in most provinces in 1937.
• The :Left alternative emerged, for the Movement had aroused expectations, which Gandhian strategy could not fulfill.
• At the level of leadership, Nehru and Bose voiced the new mood, emphasising the need to combine nationalism with radical social and economic programmes.
• Some Congress activists formed a socialist group within the party in 1934.
• Kisan Sabhas with anti-zamindar programmes developed rapidly in provinces like Bihar and Andhra.

• It provided for the establishment of an All India Federation based on a union of the provinces of British India and Princely states.
• It also provided for a bicameral federation legislature in which the states were given disproportionate weightage.
• The representatives of the states were not to be elected by the people but directly by the rulers.
• Only 14% of the total population was given the right to vote.
• The Government-General & Governors were to be appointed by the British.
• Governors were given special powers and they could veto legislative action and legislate on their own.
• The federal part of the Act was never introduced but the provincial part was soon put into operation.

• Following the withdrawal of the CDM, Gandhi wanted to focus upon his village reconstruction programme and Harijan Campaign while many to her party members wanted to fight the elections.  In October 1934 Gandhi resigned from the Indian National Congress.
• In the Elections to the Central Legislative Assembly in November 1934 the Congress won 45 seats out of the 75.  The government announced the holding of elections to the provincial legislatures in February 1937 under the Government of India Act 1935 which promised provincial autonomy.  At the Lucknow session (April 1936), the Congress decided to contest them.  The Congress framed a detailed political and economic programme at the Faizpur session (December 1936) under the Presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru.

Provincial Elections under the goi Act 1935

• The Congress won a massive mandate, It formed ministries in 8 provinces-Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, Orissa, Bihar, U.P. NWFP and Assam.
• Hripura Session (Mar 1938)  declared Purna Swaraj ideal to cover Princely States.
• Tripuri Congress ( Mar 1939) favoured active participation in the Princely States because of the federal structure of the 1935 Act and due to assumption of office by the Congress after the 1937 elections.
• The Tripuri Session witnessed Bose vs. Sitaramyya (Gandhi’s nominee) conflict. Bose resigned to form the Forward Bloc.

WW-II

• The onset of the World War-II had a tremendous impact on the Indian political scene. In September 1939, the Viceroy unilaterally declared India on war with Germany without bothering to consult any Indian leader.  In protest, Congress Ministries resigned in October 1939. Muslim League declared it to be the ‘day of deliverance.’ (The Muslim League’s Lahore Session passed Pakistan Resolution in March 1940. It was drafted by Sikandar Hayat Khan, moved by Fazlul Haq and seconded by Khaliquzzaman.)
• National congress was willing to help the forces of democracy in their struggle against fascism, but asked how was it possible for an enslaved nation to aid others in their fight of democracy.  They declared that India must be declared free or at least effective power put in Indian hands before it could actively participate in the war.
• The Viceroy refused to accept preconditions set by the Congress-Constituent Assembly for establishment of genuine responsible government at the Centre.  Eventually, however, the British Government was eager for the INC to support their War efforts. Subsequently, it tried to pacify the Congress and the Indian leaders by a series of offers through August Offer and Cripps Mission.

August offer, 1940

• The Viceroy  (Linlithgow) put forward a proposal that included:
• Dominion Status in the unspecified future
• A post-war body to enact the constitution
• Expansion of Governor-General’s Council with representation of the Indians
• Establishing a War Advisory Council
• In this offer he promised the Muslim League and other minorities that the British Government would never agree to a constitution or government in India, which did not enjoy their support (the Muslim League had demanded Pakistan in its Lahore session of 1940).  The Congress rejected this offer because:
• There was no suggestion for a national government and because the demand for Dominion Status was already discarded in favor of Purna Swaraj
• It encouraged anti-Congress forces like the Muslim League.

Individual Satyagraha

• With the failure of the British govt. to measure up to the demands, there were two opinions in Congress about the launching of civil disobedience.  Gandhi felt that the atmosphere was not in favor of civil disobedience as there were differences and indiscipline within the Congress.  However, the Congress Socialists and the All India Kisan Sabha were in favor of immediate struggle.
• Convinced that the British would not modify their policy in India, (the Congress having rejected the August Offer), Gandhi decided to start the Individual Satyagraha.
• The very reason for confining the movement to individual participation was that neither Gandhi nor the Congress wished to hamper the War effort and this was not possible in a mass movement.  Even the aim of the Satyagraha was a limited one i.e. to disprove the British claim of India supporting the War effort whole-heartedly.
• On 17 October 1940 Vinoba Bhave became the first satyagrahi followed by Nehru.  The Delhi Chalo Satyagraha was also launched. The sole issue was freedom of speech, specially the right to make antiwar speeches.
• The demand of the satyagrahis was freedom of speech against war through an anti war declaration.  If the Government did not arrest the satyagrahi, he or she would not only repeat it but move into villages and start a march towards Delhi-Delhi Chalo Movement.

The Cripps Mission: March-April 1942

• Under the pressure of Allies and the need for gestures to win over Indian public opinion, the British were forced to offer reconciliatory measures.  After the fall of Rangoon to the Japanese the British decided to send the Cripps Mission to India for constitutional proposals, which included:
• Dominion status to be granted after the war with the right to secede (Any province could, if it so desired, remain outside the Indian Union and negotiate directly with Britain)
• Constitution making body to be elected from Provincial Assemblies and Princes’ nominees after the War
• Individual princes could sign a separate agreement with the British which is effect accommodated the Pakistan demand
• British would however, control the defence for war period.
• The Congress did not want to rely upon future promises.  It wanted a responsible government with full powers and also a control over the country’s defence.  Gandhi termed the proposals as a post dated cheque in a crashing bank.  Cripps Mission failed to satisfy Indian nationalists and turned out to be merely a propaganda device for US and Chinese consumption.
• But above all the Cripps Proposals brought in “Pakistan” through the backdoor via the “local option” clause.
• Though the Cripps Mission failed, Cripps proposals provided legitimacy to the Pakistan demand by accommodating it in their provision for provincial autonomy.

Quit India Movement

• In the back-drop of the failure of Cripps mission, imminent Japanese threat, the British attitude towards Indians who were left behind in Burma and the prevailing anger and hostility to an alien and meaningless war. Quit India resolution was passed on 8 August 1942 at Gowalia Tank, Bombay.  Gandhi told the British to quit and “leave India in God’s hand”.  His message was ‘Do or Die’.

Public participation:

• Parallel governments were established in Satara-(Prati Sarkar under Nana Pati), Talcher (Orissa), parts of eastern U.P. and Bihar.
• In Bengal, Tamluk Jatiya Sarkar functioned in Midnapore district.  This national government had various departments like Law and Order, Health, Education, Agriculture, etc. along with a postal system of its own and arbitration courts.
• The Movement had initially been strong in the urban areas but soon it was the populace of rural areas, which kept the banner of revolt aloft for a longer time.
• The trend of underground revolutionary activity also started  during this phase. Jaya Prakash Narain and Ramnandan Misra escaped from Hazaribagh Jail and organized an underground movement.

• In Bombay, the Socialist leaders continued their underground activities under leaders like Aruna Asaf Ali.  The most daring act of the underground movement was the establishment of Congress Radio with Usha Mehta as its announcer.
• The participation was on many levels.  School and College students remained in the forefront, women actively participated and workers went on strikes.  Though, peasants concentrated their offence on symbols of authority, there was complete absence of anti Zamindar violence. There were no communal clashes during the movement. Repression was severe.
• The Movement did not evoke much response from  the merchant community.  In fact, most of the Capitalists and merchants had profited heavily during the War.
• The ‘Muslim League kept aloof and the Hindu Mahasabha condemned the Movement.  The Communist Party of India due to its “People’s War line did not support the movement.  The Indian Princes and the landlords were supporting the War effort and therefore did not sympathize with the movement.
• Some Congress leaders like Rjagopalachari also did not participate.
• In the initial stages, the Movement was based on non-violent lines.  Repressive policy of the government and indiscriminate arrests of the leaders provoked people to violence.  (Nehru was lodged in Almora Jail, Maulana Azad in Bankura and Gandhi in Agha Khan’s palace, Poona). Further, it was the only all-India movement, which was leader less. In many areas, the government lost all control and the people established Swaraj.

Rajagopalachari formula (1945)

• In 1944, C Rajagopalachari proposed that after the termination of the war, a Commission could be appointed for demarcating contiguous districts in the north-west and east where Muslims were in absolute majority.  In the areas thus demarcated, a plebiscite would be held on the basis of adult suffrage that would ultimately decide the issue of separation from Hindustan.  If the majority decided in favor of forming separate SovereignState, such decision could be accepted.
• In case of acceptance of partition, agreement to be made jointly for safeguarding defence, commerce, communications etc.  The above terms would to be operative only if England transferred full powers to India.
• Muslim League was expected to endorse the Congress demand for independence and co-operate with it in the formation of provisional government for the interim period.
• Jinnah objected, as he wanted congress to accept two-nation theory and wanted only Muslims of the northwest and east of India to vote in the plebiscite. Hindu leaders led by V.D.Savarkar condemned the plan.

Shimla conference (june-july 1945)

• Proposed by Wayell
• Talks suggested setting up of a new Executive council with only Indian members.  The Viceroy and the Commander in Chief would be the only non-Indian members of the council.
• ‘Caste Hindus’ and the Muslims would have equal representation the executive would work within the existing constitution (i.e. not responsible to the central Assembly) but the door was kept open for discussions on a new constitution.
• The Congress, headed by Maulana Azad, resented being characterized as a caste Hindu organization.
• Talks broke down due to Jinnah’s demand for the Muslim League to have absolute choice in choosing all Muslim members and a demand for communal veto, though it had ministries only in Assam and Sind.
• The dissolution of the conference gave Jinnah the Communal Veto in effect.  Thereafter the satisfaction of the League became a pre-requisite to any major settlement.

Cabinet mission (march-june 1946)

• Members-Wavell, Pethwick Lawrance (Secretary of State), Stafford Cripps and Alexander.
• The Mission rejected the demand for a full-fledged Pakistan (Comprising the whole of all the Muslim majority areas).  The Mission reasoned that the right of communal self-determination, if conceded to Muslims, also had to be granted to non-Muslims who formed majorities in West Bengal and Eastern Punjab, as well as in Assam proper.  The ‘truncated’ or smaller Pakistan was unacceptable to the League.

The Plan proposed

• Rejection of the demand for a full fledge Pakistan
• For a very loose union of all the Indian territories under a centre that would control merely the defence, the Foreign Affairs and the Communications, leaving all other subjects to the existing provincial legislatures.
• Provincial legislatures would elect a Constituent Assembly.  The members would divide up into three sections-A, B and C while electing the constituent Assembly.  All these sections would have the authority to draw up provincial constitutions and even group constitutions.
• Section A-Non Muslim Majority provinces (Bombay, UnitedProvinces, Bihar, Central Provinces, Orissa, Madras.
• Section B- Muslim majority provinces in the north-west (Sind, NWFP and Punjab)
• Section C-  Muslim majority provinces in North east Bengal, Assam.
• Communal questions in Central legislature were to be decided by a simple majority in both communities.
• Provinces were to have full autonomy and residual powers.
• Princely states were no longer to be under paramountcy of British Government. After the first general elections, a province could come out of a group and after 10 years a province  could call for reconsideration of the group or union constitution. Each group had powers to set up intermediate level legislature and executive on their own.
• The plan failed on the issue of the nature of grouping-Jinnah was for compulsory while Nehru was for grouping only till the formation of a constituent assembly. On 29th July 1946 Jinnah withdrew his earlier acceptance of the plan and fixed 16 August 1946 as Direct Action Day.  Calcutta, Noakhali, Garmukteshwar were the storm centres. Communal massacre weakened the Congress position in the NWFP.

Interim government

• Came into existence on 2nd September 1946 in accordance with Cabinet Mission’s proposal and was headed by J L. Nehru.  Muslim League refused to join it initially.
• Wavell persuaded the League leaders to join on 26 October 1946
• 8th December 1946-Constituent Assembly begins its session with Leaqat Ali Khan of Muslim League as the Finance Minister
• The Interim Government, obstructed by its League members and bureaucracy was reduced to a figurehead and was unable to control the communal carnage.

Atlee’s announcement

• Prime Minister Atlee on 20 February 1947 announced that the British would withdraw from India by 30 June, 1948 and that Lord Mountbatten would replace Wavell.  British powers and obligations vis-à-vis the princely states would lapse with transfer of power but these would not be transferred to any successor Government in British India.  Partition of the country was implicit in the provision that if the constituent assembly was not fully representative then power would be transferred to more than one central govt.  It was hoped that fixing a deadline, would shock both parties to come to an agreement.  The Muslim League  launched civil disobedience in Punjab, which led to the fall of Khizr Hayat Khan’s ministry.

Mountbatten Plan (3rd June Plan)

• His earlier Plan Balkan was abandoned for the 3rd June Plan
• The Plan declared that power would be handed over by 15 August 1947 on the basis of dominion status to India and Pakistan.
• Mountbatten supported the Congress stand that the princely states must not be given the option of independence.  They would either join India or Pakistan
• Boundary commission was to be headed by Radcliffe and the award was to be announced after Republic day which was a major cause of massacres
• Punjab and Bengal Legislative Assemblies would meet in two groups, Hindu’s and Muslims, to vote for partition.  If a simple majority of either group voted for partition, then these provinces would be partitioned.  In case of partition, two dominions and two constituent assemblies would be created.
• Independence for Bengal and accession of Hyderabad to Pakistan ruled out
• Mountbatten plan was to divide India but retain maximum unity.

Indian independence act, 1947

• Implemented on 15th August 1947 and Sovereignty of British Parliament was abolished.  Dominions of India and Pakistan were created.  Each dominion to have a Governor-General.  Pakistan was to comprise Sind, British Baluchistan, NWFP, West Punjab and East Bengal.

Indian national army

• The Japanese after defeating the British in South East Asia, took a number of Indian soldiers as prisoners of war eg Captain Mohan Singh.  In March 1942 a conference of Indians was held in Tokyo, and they formed the Indian Independence League.  At the Bangkok Conference (June, 1942) Rashbehari Bose was  formed by Mohan Singh.
• Subhash Chandra Bose had excaped to Berlin in 1941 and set up Indian Legion  there.  In July 1943, he joined the INA at Singapore.  There Rashbehari Bose handed over the leadership to him.
• Azad Hind Government and the Indian National Army was formed on 21 October 1943.
• INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhi, Azad and Nehru, Rani Jhansi Brigade was an exclusive Women force.
• After Germany’s surrendered in May 1945, INA was also decisively defeated.

Ina trials

• P K Sehgal, Shah Nawaz and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon were put on trial at the Red Fort.
• Bhulabhai Desai, Tejbahadur Sapru and Nehru appeared for the defence and the Muslim League also joined the countrywide protest.
• 12th Nov 1945 was celebrated as the INA day.

Rin mutiny

• 18 Feb. 1945, Bombay Ratings of HMS Talwar struck work due to flagrant racial discrimination, unpalatable food and abuse after the arrest of BC Dutt who had scrawled Quit India on the ship On 19th Feb HMS Hindustan, in Karachi also mutinied.
• Seventy-four ships, four flotillas and twenty shore establishments in Bombay, Karachi, Cochin, Vizag, Calcutta and Delhi had come under the command or influence of a Naval Central Strike Committee (headed by M.S. Khan). In Bombay the mutineers hoisted the tricolours on their shipmasts together with a portrait of Subhash Bose and shouted Jai Hind in the barracks.  Their demands included release of all political prisoners including those belonging to the Indian National Army.
• Vallabhbhai Patel and Jinnah jointly persuaded the ratings to surrender on 23rd February 1946.

The muslim league

• The partition scheme and the subsequent Swadeshi Movement were followed by the formation of the All India Muslim League towards the end of 1906 by Aga Khan, the Nawab of Dacca and Nawab Mohsinul Mulk. It consisted of a group of big Zamindars, ex-bureaucrats and other upper class Muslims.
• The factors that the helped the growth of Muslim separatism, were-the surfacing of Hindu revivalist tendencies during the Swadeshi movement, The British propaganda that the partition of Bengal would benefit the Muslims and the spurt in communal violence.
• Later, Muslim League came to be dominated by Young Turks who nursed anti-British feelings.  Britain had refused to aid Turkey in the Balkan Wars (1911-12) and had rejected University Status to the AligarhCollege.
• In 1928, the Muslim League rejected the Nehru Report, as it did not incorporate all their demands.  This led to the estrangement of Jinnah, who called it a ‘Parting of the Ways’ with the Congress and formulated his infamous fourteen points (including separate-electorates, reservation of seats in the center  and provinces, reservation of jobs for Muslims, creation of new Muslim majority provinces, etc.)  Which became the text of the communal demands.
• 19390, Dec 22- The Muslim League observes the resignation of the Congress ministries as Deliverance Day.
• 1940, March-Lahore session of the Muslim League passes the Pakistan Resolution.
• On Dec 1943 the Karachi Session of the Muslim League adopts the slogan-‘Divide and Quit’.

Integration of States

• By 15 August all except Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagadh had signed the Instrument of Accession with India, and Bhawalpur with Pakistan.  Goa was with the Portuguese and Pondicherry with the French.

• Warren Hastings set up the Calcutta Madrasa in 1781 for the study of Arabic and Persian.
• The  Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded by Sir William Jones in Calcutta in 1784
• Jonathan Duncan, the resident at Benares started the Sanskrit college in 1791
• Lord Welleslley started the FortWilliamCollege in 1800 for the training of Civil Servants, which the court of Directors closed in 1802
• William Carey, a Baptist missionary, set up schools and published Bengali translations of the Bible, thereby laying the foundations of English Education and Bengali prose literature
• The Charter Act of 1813, was the first to provide an annul expenditure of one lakh rupees “for the revival and promotion of literature.”
• David Here and Raja Rammohan Roy were instrumental in setting up the Calcutta Hindu college in 1817.  Which later developed into the PresidencyCollege.

Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy and Macualay’s Minutes

• The Orientalists led by HT Princep who favoured encouragement of Oriental literature and
• The Anglicist who favoured the advancement of Western Science and literature.
• Macualay, a member of the Executive Council wrote his Minute on Educational Policy (2, February 1833) which favoured the Anglicist viewpoint.  The Macualayan system was based as the idea that limited means negated mass education, hence a minority would be educated in English, who would act as ‘class of interpreters’, thereby enriching the vernaculars such that the knowledge of Western Sciences and literature would reach the masses.
• Lord William Bentick, in the Resolution of 7 March 1835, accepted Macualays viewpoint, which led to the promotion of European science and literature.

Sir charles wood despatch (1854)

• The President of the Board of Control, his scheme became the Magna Carta of English education in India.  The universities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay were set up in 1857.  It was Bethun’s contribution, which helped a setting up of a number of girls schools.

The hunter education commission (1882-83)

• Its main recommendations were basically for secondary   education.  Secondary Education should be in two sectors- literary Education leading to the university entrance examination and commercial and vocational training.

The raleigh commission (1902)

• The only Indian member of the commission Gurudas Banerji appointed by Lord Curzon, strongly disagreed with its recommendations, which were adopted in the Indian Universities Act of 1904.

The indian universities act (1904)

• It was enacted to ensure greater government controls over the Universities
• It transferred the power of ultimate decision in matters of college affiliation and schools recognition to government officials and sought to fix minimum colleges fees.

Sadler commission (1917-19)

• The two Indian members were Sir Ashutosh Mukherji and Dr. Ziauddin Ahmed.  It was mainly for higher education.
• It recommended a twelve year course of Matriculation, then intermediate followed by University
• University course was limited to three years and divided into Pass Course and Honours
• Each University should be a Centralized system.
• A Board of women’s education was also suggested.

Wardha scheme

• Wardha scheme of Basic Education 1937, worked out by the Zakir Hussain Committee after Mahatma Gandhi published a series of articles in the Harijan.  It centred around ‘manual productive work’ which would cover the remuneration of teachers. There was to be a seven-year course through the mother tongue of the students.  It was to be centred around crafts.

Sargeant Plan of Education (1944)

• It envisaged the establishment elementary schools and high schools
• Universal and compulsory education for all children between the age of six and eleven
• A school course of six years was to be provided for children between age eleven and seventeen
• High schools were to be of two types (a) academic and  (b) technical and vocational
• Intermediate courses were to be abolished

The Governors of Bengal

• Roger Drake (1757)
• Robert Clive (1757-60
• Holwell (officiating) 760
• Vansittart (1760-1765)
• Robert Clive (Second Administration)  (1765-67)
• Henry Verelst (1767-69)
• Cartier (1769-72)
• Robert Clive:  (Governor of Bengal from 1857-60 and again during 1765-67), Established Dual Government in Bengal from  1765-72.
• Vannistart (1767-79)
• Cartier (1769-72)

Warren hastings (1772-1785)

• Became governor of Bengal in 1772 and Governor-General in 1773 through the Regulating Act.
• Abolished Dual system of administration
• Wrote introduction to the first English translation of the Gita by Charles Wilkins
• Founded the Asiatic society of Bengal with William Jones in 1784

Revenue reforms

• Auctioned the right to collect land revenue to the highest bidder
• Divided Bengal into districts and appointed collectors and other revenue officials.

Judicial reforms

• Started Diwani and Faujdari adalats at the district level and Sadar diwani and Nizmat adalats (appellate courts) at Calcutta
• Redefined Hindu and Muslim laws.  A translation of the code in Sanskrit appeared in 1776 under the tit le of “Code of Gentoo laws.”

Wars

• Rohilla War (1774)
• Ist Anglo Maratha War (1776-82)
• 2nd Anglo Mysore –War (1780-84)

Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793)

• First person to codify laws (in 1793).  The code separated the revenue administration from the administration of justice.
• Created post of District judge.
• Introduced Permanent Settlement in Bengal
• Cornwallis is called the father of civil service in India.
• Wars: 3rd Anglo-Mysore (defeat of Tipu and the Treaty of Seringapatanam, 1972)

Sir John shore (1793-1798)

• Introduced the Ist Charter Act
• Planned the permanent settlement and later succeeded Cornwallis as Governor-General
• Wars: Battle of Kharda between Nizam and the Marathas (1795)

Lord Wellesley (1798-1805)

• Started Subsidiary Alliance system to achieve British paramountcy in India
• Madras Presidency was formed during his tenure
• Wars
• 4th Anglo-Mysore (1799)-defeat and the death of Tipu Sultan
• 2nd Anglo Maratha war (1803-05)-defeat of the Sindhia, the Bhonsale and the Holkar
• Treaty of Bassein (1802)

George Barlow (1805-1807)

• Vellore Mutiny (1806)

Lord Minto i (1807-1813)

• Concluded Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh (1809)
• Charter Act of 1813 was passed.

Lord Hastings (1813-1823)

• Adopted the policy of intervention and war
• Wars:
• Anglo-Nepalese war (1813-23)
• 3rd Anglo-Maratha war (1817-18). Hastings forced humiliating treaties on Peshwa and the Sindhia
• Introduced the Ryotwari settlement in Madras by Thomas Munro, the Governor.

Lord Amherst (1823-28)

• Wars:
• Ist Burmese War (1824-26)
• Acquisition of territories in Malay Peninsula.
• Capture of Bharatpur (1826).

Lord w Bentinck (1828-35)

• Most liberal and enlightened Governor-General of India
• Regarded as the Father of Modern Western Education in India.
• Abolition of sati and other cruel rites (1829)
• Suppression of Thuggee (1830) Curbed the Colonel Sleeman
• Passed the Charter Act of 1833, which provided that no Indian subject of Company was to be debarred from holding an office on account of his religion, place of birth, descent and colour.
• Macaulay’s minutes in education were accepted declaring that English should be the official language of India
• Abolition of provincial courts of appeal and circuit set up by Cornwallis, appointment of commissioners of revenue and circuit.
• Wars: Annexed Mysore (1831), Coorg (1834), Central Cachar (1834) on the plea of misgovernment. Concluded a treaty of perpetual friendship with Ranjit Singh.

Sir Charles Metcalfe (1834-1836)

• Passed the famous Press Law, which liberated the Press in India
• Lord Auckland (1836-42)
• Ist Afghan War (1836-42)-great blow to the prestige of the British in India

Lord Ellenborough (1842-44)

• Brought an end to the Afghan War
• Annexation of Sindh (1843)
• War with Gwalior (1843)

Lord Hardinge i (1844-48)

• Ist Anglo-Sikh war and the Treaty of Lahore, 1846. (Marked the end of Sikh Sovereignty in India).
• Gave preference to English educated in employment.

Lord Dalhousie (1848-56)

• Abolished of Title and Pensions
• Widow Remarriage Act (1856)

Wars

• Introduced Doctrine of Lapse ( Captured Satra (1848), Jaipur and Sambhalpur (1849), Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854), Fought the Anglo Sikh War and annexed the whole of the Punjab
• 2nd Burmese War (1852) and annexation of Lower Burma of Pegu
• Annexation of Berar in 1853,
• Annexation of Oudh in 1856

Administrative reforms:

• Introduced the system of Centralized control in the newly acquired territories known as Bon-Regulation system
• Raised Gurkha regiments

Educational reforms:

• Recommended the Thomsonian system of Vernacular education for whole of the Northwestern provinces (1853)
• Wood’s Educational Despatch of 1884 and opening of Anglo-VernacularSchools and GovernmentColleges
• Universities were to be set up at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.  An EngineeringCollege was established at Roorkee

Public works:

• Started the first railway line in 1853 (connecting Bombay with Thana was laid down)
• Started electric telegraph service.  Laid the basis of the modern postal system
• Established a separate public works department was set up for the first time.
• Started work on the Grand Trunk Road and developed the harbours of Karachi, Bombay and Calcutta.

Lord canning (1856-62)

• The last Governor General and the first Viceroy
• Revolt of 1857
• Passed the Act of 1858, which ended the rule of the East India Company
• Withdrew Doctrine of lapse
• The Indian Councils Act of 1861 was passed, which proved to be a landmark in the constitutional history of India
• The Doctrine of Lapse was withdrawn.  The Indian Penal Code of Criminal Procedure (1859) was passed
• The Indian High Court Act (1861) was enacted.
• Income Tax was introduced for the first time in 1858
• The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras founded in 1857
• The Indigo riots in Bengal

Lord Elgin i (1862-63)

• Wahabi Movement (Pan-Islamic Movement)

Sir john Lawrence (1864-69)

• Telegraphic communication was opened with Europe
• High Courts were established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865
• Expanded Canal works, railways
• Bhutan War (1865)
• Advocated State-managed railways
• Created the Indian Forests Department and reorganized the native judicial service

Lord Mayo (1869-72)

• Introduced financial decentralization of in India and made the first Provincial settlement in 1870
• He established the RajkotCollege at Kathiawar and MayoCollege at Ajmer for the Indian princes
• He organized the Statistical Survey of India
• He established the Department of Agriculture and Commerce
• He was the only viceroy to be murdered in office by a convict in the Andamans in 1872
• Introduction of State Railways

Lord Northbrook (1872-76)

• Kuka Movement of Punjab took rebellious turn during his period.

Lord Lytton (1878-80)

• ( The viceroy of reverse character)
• Most unpopular Governor-General
• Pursued free trade and abolished duties on 29 British manufactured goods which accelerated drain of India
• Arranged the Grand Darbar in Delhi (in 1877)  when the country was suffering from a severe famine
• Passed the Royal Title Act (1876) and Queen Victoria was declared as the Kaiser-a-Hind
• Arms Act (1878) made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license for arms
• Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act (1878)
• Proposed the plan of Statutory Civil Service in 1878-79 and lowered the maximum age limit from 21 to 19 years
• The 2nd Afgan war which proved a failure

Lord Rippon (1880-84)

• He was appointed by the Liberal Party under Gladstone
• Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act, 1882
• The first Factory Act, 1881 to improve labour condition
• Resolution on Local self Government in 1882
• Resolution on Land revenue Policy
• Appointed Hunter Commission (for education reforms) in 1882
• The Ilbert Bill controversy erupted during his time.

Lord dufferin (1884-88)

• 3rd Burmese War (Annexation of upper and Lower Burma: 1885)
• Establishment of the Indian National Congress: 1885

Lord Lansdowne (1888-94)

• The Factory Act of 1891
• Categorization of Civil Services into imperial, provincial and subordinate
• Indian Council Act of 1892 (introduced elections which was indirect)
• Appointment of the Durand Commission to define the line between British India and Afghanistan.

Lord Elgin ii (1894-1899)

• The Santhal Uprising of 1899
• Convention delimiting the frontier between China and India was ratified
• Great famine of 1896-97
• Lyll Commission appointed after famine
• Assassination of two British officials by the Chapekar brothers in 1897

Lord Curzon (1899-1905)

• Appointed a Police Commission in 1902 under Andrew Frazer
• Set up the Universities Commission and accordingly the Indian Universities Act of 1904 was passed.
• Set up the Department of commerce and Industry
• Calcutta Corporation Act (1899)
• Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper currency Act (in 1899) and put India on a gold standard.
• Partition of Bengal took place in 1905 (It was cardinal blunder of Curzon)
• In 1890, a Sino British convention was organized to demarcate the boundary of the two nations
• He created the new North West Frontier Province between the administrative frontier and the Durand line

Lord Minto ii (1905-1910)

• Swadeshi Movement
• Surat session and split in the Congress (1907)
• Newspapers Act, 1908
• Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909
• Foundation of the Muslim League, 1906

Lord herding ii (1910-1916)

• Annulment of the partition of Bengal
• Transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi
• Durbar in Delhi and Coronation of George V and Queen
• Establishment of Hindu Mahasabha by Madan Mohan Malviya , 1915

Lord Chelmsford (1916-21)

• Home Rule Movement launched by Tilak and Annie Besant
• Lukhnow Pact, 1916 between Congress and Muslim League
• Arrival of Gandhi, and Champaran Satyagraha; 1916
• Montague’s August Declaration (1917)
• 1918-Kheda Satyagraha and Satyagraha at Ahmedabad
• Government of India Act (1919)
• Constitutional Reform of 1919
• Repressive Rowlatt Acts (1919)
• Massacre at Jalianwala Bagh (1919)
• Addler Commission of Education in 1917
• Khilafat Movement
• Non-Cooperation Movement

Lord reading (1921-1926)

• Criminal Law Amendment Act and Abolition of cotton excise
• Repeal of Press Act (1910)and Rowlatt Act of 1919
• Chauri-Chaura incident
• Violent Mooplah rebellion in Kerala (1921)
• C.P.I. founded in 1921
• R.S.S. founded in 1925
• Nagpur Kakori robbery in 1925
• Holding of the simultaneous examination for the ICS in England and India from 1923
• Murder of Swami Sraddhanand

Lord Irwin (1926-1931)

• Simon Commission (announced )1927
• Butler Commission in 1927
• All India Youth Congress, 1928
• Nehru Report, 1928
• Lahore session of the congress and Poorna Swaraj declaration
• Civil Disobedience Movement 1930
• Dandi March (March 12th, 1930)
• Ist round Table Conference, 1930
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact March 5, 1931

Lord Willington (1931-1936)

• Civil Disobedience Movement
• Second Round Table Conference in September 1931
• Announcement of Communal Award (1932)
• Third Round Table Conference 1932
• Foundation of Congress Socialist Party, 1934
• Government of India Act, 1935
• Burma separated from India, 1935
• All India Kishan Sabha 1936

Lord Linlithgow (1936-1944)

• Ist General Election (1936-37)
• Congress ministries, 1937 and Resignation of Congress Ministries 1939
• Forward Block founded in 1939
• Deliverance day by Muslim League 1939
• Lahore Resolution, 1940
• August offer, 1940
• Cripps mission, 1942
• Quit India Movement, 1942

Lord Wavell (1943-1947)

• C.R.Formula 1944
• Wavell plan and Shimla Conference in 1945
• End of 2nd World War: 1945
• INATrails and the Naval mutiny, 1946
• Cabinet Mission, 1946 and acceptance of its proposals by Congress
• Direct Action Day by the Muslim League on the 16th August, 1946

Lord Mountbatten (mar-aug. 1947)

• Announced the 3 June, 1947 plan.
• June 3rd Plan announced (3rd June 1947)
• Introduction of Indian Independence Bill in the House of Commons
• Appointment of 2 boundary commissions under Sir Cryil Radcliffe

C Rajagopalachari

• The last Governor General of free India
• The only Indian Governor General remained in office from 21st June, 1948 to 25th January, 1950.

The regulating act, 1773

• First attempt by the British Parliament to regulate the affairs of the Company.
• End of Dual Government.
• Provided for centralization of Administration of Company’s territories in India.
• Governor of Bengal became Governor-general for all British territories in India.
• Governor General and council of 4 members appointed for Bengal.
• Bombay and Madras Presidency subordinated to Bengal presidency.
• Supreme Court to be set up at Calcutta. 

The Pitts India act, 1784

• This Act gave the British government the supreme control over Company’s affairs and its administration in India.
• n   Established dual system of governance.  Court of directors consisting of 24 members to look after commercial functions.
• Board of consisting of 6 parliamentary Commissioners appointed to control civil, military and revenue affairs of India.
• Strength of Governor general-in-council reduced to 3.
• Subordinated the Bombay and Madras presidency to Bengal in all questions of war, diplomacy and revenues.
• First effective substitution of Parliamentary Control over East India Company.

The Charter Act of 1793

• Company given monopoly of trade for 20 more years.
• Expenses and salaries of the Board of Control to be charged on Indian Revenue.
• Governor-General could override his Council.

The Charter Act of 1813

• Company deprived of its trade monopoly in India except in tea and trade with China.
• All Englishmen could trade with India subject to few restrictions.
• Rules and procedures made for use of Indian revenue.
• A sum of Rs. 1 lakh earmarked annually for education.

The Charter Act of 1833

• End of company’s trade monopoly even in tea and with China. Company was asked to close its business at the earliest.
• Governor-General Bengal to be Governor-General of India. (1st Governor-General of India – Lord William Bentick).
• Government of Madras and Bombay deprived of legislative powers.
• A fourth members, law members, added to council of Governor-General. 
• Government Service was thrown open to the people of India.
• All laws made by Governor General-in-council henceforth to be known as Acts and not regulations.

The Charter Act of 1853

• Extended life of the Company for an unspecified period.
• First time separate legislative machinery consisting of 12 members legislative council was created.
• Law member was made a full member of the Executive Council of the Governor General.
• Recruitment to Civil Services was based on open on annual competitive examination (excluding Indians).

The Government of India Act, 1858

• Rule of Company in India ended and that of the Crown began.
• System of double Government ended.  Court of Directors and Board of Control abolished.
• Secretary of State (a member of the British Cabinet) for India was created.  He was assisted by a 15- member council (India Council).  He was to exercise the powers of the Crown.
• Secretary of State governed India through the Governor-General.
• Governor-General was to be called the Victory and was the direct representative of the Crown in India.
• A unitary and highly centralized administrative structure was created. 

The Indian council act, 1861

• Policy of Association of Indians in legislation started.
• A fifth member, who was to be a jurist, was added to the Viceroy’s executive council.
• For legislation, Executive Council of Viceroy was enlarged by 6 to 12 members composed of half non-official members.  Thus foundations of Indian legislature were laid down.
• Legislative powers of the Presidency Government deprived in 1833 were restored.
• Viceroy could issue ordinances in case of emergency.

The Indian council act, 1892

• Though the majority of official members were retained, the non-officials members of the Indian Legislative Council were Bengal Chamber of Commerce and the Provincial Legislative Councils.  While the non-official members of the provincial council were to be nominated by certain local bodies such as universities, district boards, municipalities.
• Beginning of representative system in India.
• Council to have the power to discuss budget and of addressing questions to the Executive.

Indian council act, 1909 (Morley – minto act)

• Morley was the secretary of state, while Minto was the Indian Viceroy.
• Additional members in central legislative assembly were increased to 60.
• Introduced for the first time indirect elections to the Legislative Councils.
• Separate electorates were introduced for the Muslims.
• 27 non-officials seats were to be filled in by elections.  They were distributed as follows.
• By non-official members of the Provincial Legislative councils.
• By landholders of 6 province.
• By Muslims of 5 provinces.
• Alternately by Muslim landholders of UP/Bengal Chambers of commerce of Calcutta and Bombay.
• Muslims were to be elected by the Separate electorates.
• Resolutions could be moved before the budget was taken in its final form.  Supplementary questions could be asked. 

The Government of India Act, 1919

• Popularly known as Montague Chelmsford Reforms.
• The idea of “Responsible Government” was emphasised upon.
• Devolution Rules :  Subjects of administration were divided into two categories – “Central” and “Provincial”.  Subjects of all India importance (like railways and finance) were brought under the category of Central, while matters relating to the administration of the provinces were classified as provincial.
• Dyarchy system introduced in the Provinces.  The Provincial subjects of administration were to be divided into two categories “Transferred” and “Reserved” subjects. The transferred subjects were to be administrated by the Governor with the aid of Ministers responsible to the Legislative Council.  The Governor and his Executive Council were to administer the reserved subjects (Rail, Post, Telegraph, Finance, Law and Order etc.) without any responsibility to the legislature.
• An office of the High commissioner of India was created in London.
• Indian legislature became “bicameral” for the first time.
• Communal representation extended to Sikhs.
• Secretary of State for India now to be paid for British revenue.

The Government of India Act, 1935

• The Act was based on 2 basic principles, federation and parliamentary system.
• Provided for the establishment of an All India federation consisting of the BritishProvinces and the PrincelyStates.  The joining of Princely States was voluntary and as a result the federation did not come into existence.
• Dyarchy was introduced at the Centre (e.g. department of Foreign Affairs and Defence were reserved for the Governor General).  Provincial autonomy replaced Dyarchy in Provinces.  They were granted separate legal identity.
• It made a three-fold division of powers – Federal, Provincial and concurrent lists.  Residuary powers were to be with the Governor General.
• The Indian Council of Secretary of State for India was abolished.
• Principle of separate electorate was extended to include Anglo-Indians, Indian Christians and Europeans.
• A Federal Court was to be constituted with a chief Justice and 10 other judges.  This was set up in 1937.
• Sind and Orissa were created.
• Franchise was based on property qualifications.

Indian independence act, 1947

• This Act did not lay down any provision for the administration of India.
• Partition of India and the establishment of two dominions of India and Pakistan.
• Constituent Assembly of each Dominion would have unlimited powers to frame and adopt any constitution.
• The Suzerainty of the crown over Indian states was terminated.
• The office of the Secretary of State for India was to be abolished and his work was to be taken over by the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs.

 

HISTORY - CHRONOLOGY (1906-1947)

1906, October 15	Partition of Bengal announced
1906, Dec. 31	Muslim League founded at Decca.
1908, Apr. 30	Khudiram Bose executed.
1908, Jul. 22	Tilak sentenced to six years on charges of sedition.
1909, May 21	Minto-Morely Reforms or Indian councils Act, 1909. The coronation or Delhi durbar held at Delhi in which the partition of Bengal was cancelled.Delhi becomes the new capital of India.
1912, Dec. 23	Bomb thrown on Lord Hardinge on his state entry into Delhi.
1913, Nov. 1	Ghadar party formed at San Francisco.
1914, Jun. 16	B.G. Tilak released from jail.
1914, Aug. 4	Outbreak of the 1st World War.
1914, Sept. 29	Komagata Maru ship reaches Budge Budge.
1915, Jan.	Gandhiji arrives in India.
1915, Feb. 19	Death of Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
1916, Apr. 28	B.G. Tilak founds Indian Home Rule League with its headquarters at Poona.
1916, Sept. 25	Another Home Rule League started by Annie Besant.
1917, Apr.	Mahatma Gandhi launches the Champaran campaign in ‘Bihar to focus attention on the grievances of indigo planters.
1917, Aug. 20	The Secretary of State for India Montagu, declares that the goal of the British government in India is the introduction of Responsible Government. Beginning of trade union movement in India.
1918 Apr.	Rowlatt (Sedition) Committee submits its report. Rowlatt Bill introduces on February 16, 1919.
1919, Apr. 6	All India hartal over Rowlatt Bills.
1919, Apr. 13	Jallianwalas Bagh tragedy
1919, Dec.5	The House of Commons passes the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms or the Government of India Act, 1919.  The new reforms under this Act came into operation in 1921. First meeting of the All India Trade Union Congress. (Narain Malhar Joshi)
1920, Dec.	The Indian National Congress (INC) adopts the Non-Cooperation Resolution (Started in August 31, 1920).
1920-22	Non-Cooperation Movement, suspended on February 11-12, 1922 after the violent incidents at Chauri Chaura on February 5, 1922.
1922 Aug.	Moplah rebellion on the Malabar cost.
1923 Jan. 1	Swarajist Party formed by Motilal Nehru and others.
1924	The Communist Party of India starts its activities first at Kanpur.
1925, Agu.	Kakori Train Conspiracy case.
1927, Nov.8	The British Prime Minister announces the appointment of the Simon Commission to suggest future constitutional reforms in India.  Simon Commission arrives in Bombay on February 3, 1928 and all-India hartal Lala Lajpat Rai assaulted by police at Lahore. Nehru Report recommends principles for the new constitution of India.  All-Parties Conference considers the Nehru Report, August, 28-31, 1928.
1928, Nov. 17	Death of Lala Lajpat Rai.
1929, Mar.9	All-Parties Muslim Conference formulates the ‘Fourteen Points’ under the leadership of Jinnah.
1929, Apr.8	Bhagat Singh and Batakeshwar Dutt drop bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly.
1929, Oct.31	Lord Irwin’s announcement that the goal of British policy in India was the grant of the Dominion status.
1929, Dec.31	The Lahore session of the INC adopts the goal of complete independence – poorna swarajya for India.
1930, Jan. 1	Jawaharlal Nehru hoists the tricolour of Indian Independence on the banks of the Ravi at Lahore.
1930, Jan. 26	First Independence Day observed.
1930, Feb. 14	The Working committee of the INC meets at Sabarmati and passes the Civil Disobedience resolution.
1930, Mar. 12	Mahatma Gandhi launches the Civil Disobedience movement with his epic Dandi march (March 12 to April 5).  First phase of the Civil Disobedience movement: March 12, 1930 to March 5, 1931.
1930, Nov. 30	First Round Table Conference begins in London to consider the report of the Simon.
1931, Mar. 5	Gandhi-Irwin pact signed. Civil Disobedience movement suspended.
1931, Mar. 23	Bhagat Singh, Sukh Dev and Rajguru executed.
1931, Dec. 28	Gandhiji returns from London after the deadlocked in IInd RTC. Launches Civil Disobedience Movement. The INC declared illegal.
1931, Jan. 4	Gandhiji arrested and imprisoned without trail.
1931, Aug. 16	British Prime Minster Ramsay  Macdonald announces the infamous “Communal Award”.
1932, Sept. 20	Gandhiji in jail, begins his epic “fast unto death” against the Communal Award and ends the fast on Sept. 26 after the Poona Pact.
1932, Nov. 17	The third Round Table Conference begins in London (Nov. 17 to Dec. 24).
1933, May 9	Gandhiji released from prison as he begins fast self-purification. INC suspends Civil Disobedience movement but authorizes Satyagrah by individuals. Gandhiji withdraws from active politics and devotes himself to “constructive programmes” 1934-39
1935, Aug 4	The Government of India Act (1935) passed. Election held in India under the Act of 1935 (February 1937). The INC contests election, and forms ministries in seven provinces (July 1937).
1938, Feb 19-20	Haripura session of INC.  Subash Chandra Bose elected Congress president.
1939, Mar. 10-12	Tripura session of the INC.
1939, Apr.	Subhas Chandra Bose resigns as the president of the INC.
1939, Sept. 3	Second World War (September 1), Great Britain declares war on Germany; the Viceroy declares that India too is at war.
1939, Oct. 27-Nov. 5	The Congress ministries in the provinces resign in protest against the war policy of the British government.
1939, Dec. 22	The Muslim League observes the resignation of the Congress ministries at Deliverance Day.
1940, Mar.	Lahore session of the Muslim League passes the Pakistan Resolution.
1940, Aug. 10	Viceroy Linlithgow announces – August Offer’
1940, Aug.18-22	Congress Working Committee rejects the ‘August Offer’
1940, Oct. 17	Congress launches Individual Satyagraha movement.
1941, Jan. 17	Subhas Chandra Bose escape from India; arrives in Berlin (March 28).
1942, Aug. 7-8	The INC meets in Bombay; adopts ‘Quit India’ resolution.
1942, Aug. 9	Gandhiji and other Congress leaders arrested.
1942, Aug 11	Quit India movement begins; the Great August Uprising.
1942, Sept. 1	Subhas Chandra Bose establish the Indian National Army Azad Hind Fauj.
1943, Oct. 21	Subhas Chandra Bose proclaims the formation of the Provisional Government of Free India.
1943 Dec.	Karachi session of the Muslim League adopts the slogan Divide and Quite.
1944, Jun. 25	Wavell calls Simla Conference in a bid to form the executive Council of Indian political leaders.
1946, Feb. 18	Mutiny of the Indian naval ratings in Bombay.
1946, Mar. 15	British Prime Minister Attlee announces Cabinet Mission to propose new solution to the Indian deadlock; Cabinet Mission arrivers in New Delhi (March 14); issues proposal (May 16)
1946, Jul 6	Jawaharlal Nehru takes over as Congress president.
1946, Aug. 6	Wavell invites Nehru to from an interim government; Interim Government takes office (Sept. 2)
1946, Dec. 9	First session of Constituent Assembly of Indian starts. Muslim League boycotts.  It.
1947, Feb. 20	British Prime Minister Attlee declares that the British government would leave India not later than June 1948.
1947, Mar. 24	Lord Mountbatten, the last British Viceroy and Governor-General of India, sworn in (March 24, 1947 to June 21, 1948)
1947, June 3	Mountbatten Plan for the partition of India and the announcement (Just 4) that transfer of power will take place on August 15.
1947, Aug. 15	India wins freedom.

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