RENAISSANCE

• The term Renaissance literally means “REBIRTH” OR “REVIVAL”.
• But it refers to the significant changes that took place in Europe during the transition period between the medieval and modern.
• There was a revival of literature and art on the intellectual side.
• The spirit of enquiry led to scientific inventions.
• Politically, this period witnessed the end of feudalism and the emergence of nation-states.
• The spirit of individualism and humanism began to dominate in the social sphere.
• The religious transformation was symbolized by the Reformation.
• All these changes in Europe were collectively referred to as Renaissance.
• The Roman Empire declined by the end of the 5th century A.D.
• It had resulted in the neglect of classical literature and arts.
• But these treasures of culture were preserved in the Eastern Roman Empire with its capital at Constantinople.
• The Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople in 1453.
• As a result, the Byzantine-Greek scholars fled from Constantinople to Rome.
• They brought with them the Greek and Roman heritage.
• With this revival of classical learning in Italy, a spirit of enquiry developed.
• This spirit of enquiry stimulated the progress of science, art, architecture, sculpture, painting, literature, geography and religion.

RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

Italy is considered the birth place of the Renaissance for several reasons. Some of them were:

• Italy was the seat of ancient civilization and the Latin language.
• The rich city states in Italy like Florence and Venice patronized art and literature.
• For example, the Medici family of Florence had patronized many scholars.
• The publication of the DIVINE COMEDY by the greatest Italian poet DANTE (1265-1321) triggered the Renaissance movement in the city of Florence.
• It was written in the Italian language.
• Thereafter, the Renaissance spread to other parts of Europe and reached its peak in the sixteenth century.

REVIVAL OF CLASSICAL LITERATURE

• The most important contribution of the Renaissance was the revival and learning of ancient Greek and Latin literature.
• The pioneer in this effort was PETRARCH (1304–1374) with his profound knowledge in these languages; he collected and compiled many ancient manuscripts containing the works of Plato and Aristotle.
• His disciple Boccaccio had also encouraged the classical learning.
• Many Greek scholars who came from Constantinople spread the ancient Greek literature in Florence.
• The contribution of ERASMUS (1463-1536) in correcting and editing the Latin works was also notable.
• He edited the New Testament in the Greek language.
• The INVENTION OF PRINTING PRESS BY JOHN GUTENBERG (1398-1468) in Germany had influenced the Renaissance literature.
• The first book published by him was The Bible.
• William Caxton set up a printing press in England.
• Shortly, many printing presses came up throughout Europe and it provided a stimulus to the Renaissance movement.
• The availability of books at cheaper rates made the masses to improve their awareness.

RENAISSANCE LITERATURE

• Apart from the revival of classical literature, many works in classical languages as well as in the native languages came up during this period.
• CHAUCER wrote the CANTERBURY TALES in English.
• Boccaccio was the author of the Deccameron, a collection of fables.
• MACHIAVELLI wrote THE PRINCE, a book on political science.
• While Italy was the home of the most famous literary figures of the Renaissance, a Renaissance literature typical of that period can also be found in France, England, Germany, and Spain.
• In England, SIR THOMAS MOORE wrote his famous book UTOPIA in Latin.
• However, the ELIZABETHAN ERA marked the beginning of the English Renaissance.
• It saw dramatists like WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE and poets like Edmund Spenser, Sydney and Ben Johnson.
• MONTAIGNE (1533-1592), the French essayist, was the most typical writer of the Renaissance literature.
• His works reflect an intense interest in himself and in things connected with the life of man.
• His essays on education were regarded as important for centuries.
• A forerunner of Voltaire in his method of writing and thinking, Montaigne revolted against the authority and the tyranny of the past and earned the title “THE FIRST MODERN MAN”.
• In Germany, MARTIN LUTHER translated the Bible in the German language.
• Sebastian Brant wrote The Ship of Fools. In Spain, Cervantes authored the famous Don Quixote.

RENAISSANCE ART

• Art in the Middle Ages was dominated by the Christian religion and Church.
• During the Renaissance importance was given to the love of nature and human body.
• Although the spirit of humanism prevailed, the subject matter of the most of the Renaissance art was Christian.
• Renaissance painting bloomed most profusely in Italy.
• Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo (1475-1564) and Raphael (1483-1520) were the dominant figures among the Renaissance painters.
• LEONARDO DA VINCI, one of the most versatile men of his time, was an artist, poet, musician, and engineer.
• Hence, he is known as the “RENAISSANCE MAN”.
• His famous paintings were the MONA LISA and THE LAST SUPPER.
• MICHELANGELO was both a painter and sculptor.
• The magnificent frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican represent his most brilliant achievement in painting.
• His painting, THE LAST JUDGEMENT is considered the best in the world.
• RAPHAEL achieved a rare blending of devotional feeling with a sense of beauty.
• The Venetian School is an excellent example of the secularization of the Renaissance art.
• Artistic expression in Venice was worldly and materialistic.
• Titian (1477-1576) and Tintoretto (1518-1592) were the greatest painters of Venice.

RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE

• The art of sculpture had also witnessed progress during the Renaissance period.
• It was more original and beautiful.
• The pioneer of the Renaissance sculpture was LORENZO GHIBERTI (1378-1455).
• The magnificent doors at the Baptistery of Florence were his master piece.
• Michael Angelo appreciated the beauty of these doors as worthy to the gates of the Paradise.
• DONATELLO (1386-1466) produced the statue of St. George in Florence and that of St. Mark at Venice.
• MICHELANGELO besides being a painter was a celebrated sculptor.
• He was also the creator of the statue of DAVID in Florence.
• Brunelleschi and Robbia were the other famous sculptors of this period.
• One of the most familiar examples of the Renaissance architecture is St. Peter’s Church of Rome.

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE

• The spirit of modem science was born with the Renaissance.
• Science in the Middle Ages struggled against superstitions.
• The Renaissance brought about a critical observation of natural phenomena.
• This spirit of learning took root in science.
• FRANCIS BACON (1561-1626) is considered the FATHER OF MODERN SCIENCE.
• He denounced the deductive method and advocated the inductive method in scientific research.
• DESCARTES (1596-1650) brought out convincingly the necessity of questioning everything.
• Descartes contributed the idea of doubt, and doubt was the forerunner of a new age in science.
• COPERNICUS (1473-1543) established the HELIOCENTRIC THEORY.
• According to this theory the heavenly bodies do not revolve about the earth as believed during that period but around the sun.
• KEPLER (1571-1630) formulated mathematical laws to support the conclusions of Copernicus.
• He also stated that the planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits.
• GALILEO (1564-1642) through the invention of the TELESCOPE brought new evidence to support the Copernican theory.
• NEWTON (1642-1727) concluded that the movements of all celestial bodies were controlled by GRAVITATION.
• With the new astronomical knowledge that was available, the old Julian calendar was reformed in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII.
• The humanistic spirit of the Renaissance had also awakened increased interest in the study of medicine and anatomy.
• VESALIUS (1514-1564), a Netherlander wrote a treatise on human anatomy.
• WILLIAM HARVEY (1578-1657) discovered the BLOOD CIRCULATION, a prime contribution to medical science.
• In this period, chemistry became something more than alchemy.
• Paracelsus (1493-1541) showed that reactions in the human body involve chemical changes.
• He had employed chemicals for medicinal purposes.
• Cordus (1515-1544) made ether from sulphuric acid and alcohol.
• Helmont (1577-1644) discovered the carbon dioxide.

RESULTS OF THE RENAISSANCE

• The Renaissance remained the symbol of the beginning of the modern age.
• The spirit of enquiry and the consequent scientific inventions produced important changes in the life of humanity.
• The invention of the Mariner’s Compass and other astronomical faiths led to the Geographical discoveries.
• The impact of these discoveries was profound in the political and economic life of the people.
• The reasoning spirit had resulted in the Reformation and changed the outlook of the people towards religion.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES

• The Geographical Discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries constitute an important chapter in the history of the modern world.
• It is also known as the Age of Discovery.
• The new sea routes to the East as well as the discovery of new continents like the America radically transformed the course of history.
• The adventurous spirit of the sailors like Bartholomew Diaz, Christopher Columbus and Ferdinand Magellan ultimately led to these historic discoveries.
• There are several causes that led to these discoveries.

CAUSES FOR THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES

• In 1453, the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, the important trade route to the East.
• Thus, the Turks began to control the European trade with the East.
• They imposed heavy duties on the goods.
• On the other hand, the Arab traders continued their trade through the Coasts of India and got huge profits in spice trade.
• Therefore, the Europeans were forced to find an alternative route to the East.
• The Renaissance spirit and the consequent scientific discoveries were also responsible for geographical discoveries.
• The art of ship-building developed along with the invention of Mariner’s Compass.
• The astronomical and other scientific discoveries raised the hope of the adventurers to explore new sea routes.
• The travel accounts of MARCO POLO AND NICOLO POLO about China and India kindled great enthusiasm among the Europeans about the fabulous wealth of the Eastern countries.
• Other accounts of the voyages also encouraged explorations.
• A Merchants Handbook described all known trade routes between Europe and the Far East.
• Similarly, the Secrets of the Faithful Crusader told about Asiatic cities.
• Other factors such as the spirit of adventure, desire for new lands and competition for exploration between European nations had also stimulated the explorers venturing into the seas.

PORTUGAL

• The first great wave of expeditions was launched by Portugal.
• Its ruler was HENRY (1394-1460) generally known as “THE NAVIGATOR”.
• As a result of his efforts, the Madeira and Azores Islands were discovered.
• The main project of Henry the Navigator was the exploration of the West Coast of Africa.
• His sailors discovered the Cape Verde Islands.
• In 1487 BARTHOLOMEW DIAZ reached the southern tip of Africa and called it “THE CAPE OF STORMS” due to a terrible storm he experienced there.
• Later it was renamed as “THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE” because it provided hope that access to the Indian Ocean was possible.
• VASCO DA GAMA successfully used this route and reached India in 1498.

SPAIN

• Next to Portugal, Spain began to explore the sea route to the east.
• CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS planned to discover a new sea route to the East by traveling westwards.
• After securing monetary assistance from KING FERDINAND AND QUEEN ISABELLA OF SPAIN, he set sail on August 3, 1492 across the Atlantic.
• After a long and difficult voyage he reached an island of the Bahamas on Oct 12, 1492.
• He thought that he had reached the shores of India.
• Therefore, he called the natives of that island Indians.
• He made three more voyages and explored the islands in the Caribbean Sea and Central America.
• These islands are even today called as the West Indies.
• Later in 1501, AMERIGO VESPUCCI, an Italian navigator, with the support of the king of Spain explored the areas of South America.
• He came to the conclusion that what Columbus discovered was not India but a “New World”.
• Therefore the new continent was named as America.
• However, Columbus is considered as the discoverer of America.
• In 1493, POPE ALEXANDER VI issued a Bull in order to prevent any dispute between Spain and Portugal in exploring new sea routes and new lands.
• It is popularly called the PAPAL BULL (order of Pope).
• According to it an imaginary line was drawn dividing the globe into east and west.
• Spain was given the right to possess the lands on the west and Portugal on the east of the Pope’s line.
• Thus, Spain could not use sea route through the Cape of Good Hope to reach the East Indies.
• Therefore, Spain planned to reach the east by sailing westwards.
• On August 10, 1519, Ferdinand Magellan had sailed with five Spanish ships.
• The fleet of Magellan crossed a long passage on the southern end of South America.
• This strait is now named the STRAIT OF MAGELLAN.
• Then he entered an ocean which was calmer than the Atlantic.
• Therefore, he named it the Pacific Ocean.
• At last they reached the Philippines, where Magellan was killed by the natives.
• The survivors with the only remaining ship, the Victoria arrived at Sevilla through the Cape of Good Hope on September 9, 1522.
• It was the first voyage undertaken round the world.

OTHER GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES

• In 1497, JOHN CABOT was sent by Henry VII of England to explore the seas. He discovered the Newfoundland.
• In his next expedition, he reached North America and explored it.
• But he was not able to find any people there and returned to England disappointed.
• However, this voyage resulted in the claim of England to the mainland of North America.
• In 1534, JACQUES CARTIER from France went to the North America and explored the region.
• He found the Red Indian settlements and named that region as Canada.

IMPACT OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES

The geographical discoveries had a profound impact on the economic, political and social conditions in most parts of the world. The most important among them are:

• There was a tremendous improvement in the trade and industry in Europe.
• It began to reach beyond the Oceans.
• The expansion of trade provided a stimulus to the development of ship-building industry.
• Larger quantities of goods had to be carried in bigger ships.
• As the trade developed in large scale, joint-stock companies and banking enterprises emerged.
• European companies established their trade centres in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
• The trading companies slowly captured political power and established their rule in their respective regions.
• This led to Colonialism and Imperialism.
• Capitalism had grown in Europe along with the policy of Mercantilism.
• As a result, the colonies were exploited.
• The mad rush for new colonies led to mutual rivalry among the European powers and ultimately resulted in wars.
• The system of slavery was followed. The European planters in America imported Negro slaves from Africa to work in their plantations.
• The geographical discoveries solved the problem of over population in Europe and many Europeans began to settle in the American continents.
• The culture of Europe had spread to Asia, Africa and other parts of the world very rapidly.

THE REFORMATION AND COUNTER REFORMATION

• The term Reformation refers to a great religious reform movement in Europe during 16th century.
• There was a big protest against the Christian Church in different parts of Europe and it ultimately resulted in the emergence of Protestant Christian religion.
• This great religious movement was not only the evidence of a great religious change, but also proclaimed the dawn of a new era.
• The Reformation started in Germany and later it spread to other countries.

CAUSES FOR THE REFORMATION

There are several causes for the Reformation:

• The Christian Church under the Pope was originally commanded respect among the people.
• But in the Middle ages, it had become a big feudal institution and possessed so much of lands and wealth.
• The Popes enjoyed great political influence and interfered into the political affairs.
• As a result they began to neglect their spiritual duties.
• The Pope and the clergy began to lead luxurious lives.
• The Popes like Alexander VI, Julius II and Leo X who lived in 15th and 16th centuries with their activities undermined the respect and prestige of the Church.
• The Renaissance movement created a spirit of inquiry among the masses.
• They began to read the Bible and realized that the activities of the Church and the clergy were not according to the precepts of the holy book.
• In the years preceding the Reformation, many writers condemned luxurious and superstitious practices prevalent in the Church.
• JOHN WYCLIFFE (1330-1384) from England criticized the Pope for his authority and misdeeds.
• He translated the Bible into English.
• He is considered THE MORNING STAR OF THE REFORMATION.
• ERASMUS (1466-1536) attacked the superstitions followed by the clergy in his book IN PRAISE OF FOLLY. It was published in 1509.
• JOHN HUSS (1369-1415) struggled for reforming the Church. But he was condemned for his writings against the Church and burnt to death.
• These early efforts to reform the Church sowed the seeds for the Reformation of the 16^th century.
• The emergence of nation-states in Europe eroded the political influence enjoyed by the Church during the Middle Ages.
• The Pope and the Emperor lost their influence and power.
• The people began to respect their king and the nation.
• Therefore, the concept of Universal Church slowly gave way to national churches.

MARTIN LUTHER (1483-1546)

• The Reformation started in Germany and it was led by Martin Luther.
• In November 1510 he visited Rome.
• He was shocked to see the worldly life led by the Roman clergy.
• Thereafter, Luther began a systematic campaign for the removal of evils of the Church.
• In 1517, POPE LEO X sent JOHN TETZEL to Germany to sell INDULGENCES for the purpose of raising money to renovate the Saint Peter’s Church at Rome.
• An indulgence was originally meant a promise given to a sinner for the remission of punishment if he repented and confessed his sins.
• But Pope Leo X used the sale of indulgences to raise money.
• Therefore, Luther opposed the practice of the sale of indulgences.
• When John Tetzel visited WITTENBERG, Luther listed the abuse of indulgence in his 95 THESES and nailed it to the doors of the church.
• Pope Leo X got alarmed and excommunicated Luther in January 1521.
• Luther burnt this order in public.
• Then the Pope appealed to Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, to punish Luther for his writings against the Church.
• But Luther had the support of the German princes.
• However, he appeared before Emperor Charles V at the DIET OF WORMS in April 1521.
• Luther was proclaimed guilty.
• But before his imprisonment, he was escorted by his friends and kept at Wartburg Castle.
• There he translated New Testament from original Greek into German language.
• He published his most popular book, the Small Catechism, in 1529.
• When the rural people of Germany joined this religious protest it became the Peasants’ War of 1524-1525.
• The revolt of peasants was suppressed with an iron hand.
• Many peasants were massacred.
• In the DIET OF SPIRES which met in 1526, the religious question was raised again by the German princes.
• The Diet gave permission to the princes to choose their own religion.
• But, Emperor Charles V revoked this decision in 1529.
• Therefore, the German princes drew up a protest and they came to be known as “PROTESTANTS”.
• It was only in the PEACE OF AUGSBURG in 1555, formal approval was given by the Emperor to the princes either to remain Catholic or Lutheran.
• It gave recognition only to Lutheran sect and not to Zwinglianism or Calvinism.

ULRICH ZWINGLI (1484-1531)

• Ulrich Zwingli paved the way for the Reformation in Switzerland.
• He was contemporary of Martin Luther.
• Samson was sent to Zurich by the Pope to sell the indulgences.
• It was opposed by Zwingli.
• Thereafter, his preaching was directed against the leadership of the Pope, the excessive veneration of saints, the celibacy of the priesthood, and fasting.
• His stand against the celibacy was opposed by the bishop of Constance.
• The city council voted in favour of Zwingli and against the bishop.
• Thus Zurich adopted the Reformation.
• In 1523, Pope sent an order excommunicating Zwingli but, the Zurich Canton announced its separation from the Church.
• Five other Cantons declared a war against Zurich in which Zwingli was killed in 1531.
• Finally an agreement was reached between the Cantons by which each Canton was given freedom to choose their religious sect.

JOHN CALVIN (1509-1564)

• The French protest reformer John Calvin was born in France.
• In 1536, he settled in Geneva.
• His main teachings are that the Bible alone is the final authority for matters of faith and that salvation is attained purely through grace.
• He subscribed to the doctrine of the absolute fore-knowledge and the determining power of God.
• Calvin published his religious doctrines as a book called The Institutes of Christian Religion.
• His religious sect was known as Calvinism.
• He became the head of the church in Geneva.
• He established several schools for the spread of education.
• He was also the founder of the University of Geneva.
• Calvinism had spread to many parts of Europe.

REFORMATION IN ENGLAND

• KING HENRY VIII OF ENGLAND initially opposed Martin Luther and supported the Pope.
• He was called “THE DEFENDER OF FAITH” by Pope Leo X.
• This relationship with the Pope broke down when the Pope refused to permit King Henry VIII to MARRY ANNE BOLEYN after divorcing his queen.
• He asked the Parliament to pass an ACT OF SUPREMACY in 1534 by which the king was made the head of the Church of England.
• This new Church independent of the authority of Pope was called the ANGLICAN CHURCH.
• Henry VIII did not introduce any changes in the Catholic doctrines.
• But the Anglican Church became really Protestant in the reign of EDWARD VI (1547-1553).
• The service books were translated into English.

COUNTER-REFORMATION

• The success of the Reformation movement created a great awe and fear in the Roman Catholic Church.
• Before things went out of control, it took drastic measures to check the spread of the Protestant religion and also to carry out reforms within itself.
• This process was known as Counter-Reformation.
• IGNATIUS LOYOLA (1491-1556) was a Spanish soldier and lost his legs in a war.
• Thereafter, he decided to contribute his might to the cause of the Roman Catholic Church.
• Loyola founded the SOCIETY OF JESUS in 1534 and it was recognized by the Pope.
• The aim of this Society was to reform and restore the glory of the Catholic Church.
• Members of the society were known as Jesuits.
• They worked hard to earn good name for the Catholic Church through their dedicated service.
• They established schools and colleges in several parts of the world.
• They achieved a remarkable success in their missionary activities.
• They remained faithful to the Pope and the Catholic religion.
• THE COUNCIL OF TRENT (1545-1563) introduced several reforms in the Catholic Church.
• The most glaring abuses of the clergy were removed.
• Celibacy was strictly enforced for them.
• The sale of offices was stopped.
• The practice of the sale of indulgences was abolished.
• It also stressed that clergy adhere more strictly to their duties.
• The Pope was recognized as the supreme authority in the matters of religion.
• An Index consisting of the list of dangerous and heretical books was issued by the Church.
• The Catholics were prohibited from reading these books.
• Similarly the medieval practice of Ecclesiastical Court of Inquisition was revived.
• Torture was used to extract confession.
• Severe punishments such as burning to death were employed against the enemies of the Church.
• The success of the Counter Reformation can be understood from the fact that the rapid spread of Protestantism was halted.
• Southern Germany, France, Poland, some of the Swiss cantons, and Savoy were brought back to the Catholic faith.
• At the same time Protestantism was driven out of Italy and Spain.
• The Roman Catholic Church is still one of the greatest religious organizations in the world.

EFFECTS OF REFORMATION

The important results of the Reformation were

• The Reformation led to two major divisions in Christianity –Catholics and Protestants.
• This division had resulted in religious persecution and religious wars Germany and in other parts of Europe.
• People were encouraged to read the Bible and ponder on religion.
• The freedom given by the Protestants to interpret the Bible led to free thinking.
• It encouraged the development of art, literature and science.
• The democratic church system paved the way for the growth of democracy and nationalism.
• The nations began to evolve their own churches.
• The place of Pope was taken by the nationalistic churches.
• The rapid progress of the Protestant religion and the counter-Reformation ultimately resulted in the purification of the Church.
• Both Catholics and Protestants began to adopt high moral standards after the Reformatiozn.
• The Catholics purified their Church establishments and this in turn improved the values in the society.

THE ENLIGHTENMENT (1650–1800)