Management as an Art

Art is the skillful and personal application of existing knowledge to achieve desired results. It can be acquired through study, observation and experience. Art is concerned with personal application of knowledge some kind of ingenuity and creativity is required to practice the basic principles learnt. The basic features of an art are as follows:

Existence of theoretical knowledge:

• Art presupposes the existence of certain theoretical knowledge.

Experts in their respective areas have derived certain basic principles which are applicable to a particular form of art. For example, literature on dancing, public speaking, acting or music is widely recognised.

•  Personalised application:

The use of this basic knowledge varies from individual to individual. Art, therefore, is a very personalised concept. For example, two dancers, two speakers, two actors, or two writers will always differ in demonstrating their art.

•  Based on practice and creativity:

All art is practical. Art involves the creative practice of existing theoretical knowledge. We know that all music is based on seven basic notes. However, what makes the composition of a musician unique or different is his use of these notes in a creative manner that is entirely his own interpretation.

Management can be said to be an art since it satisfies the following criteria:

• A successful manager practices the art of management in the day-to-day job of managing an enterprise based on study, observation and experience. There is a lot of literature available in various areas of management like marketing, finance and human resources which the manager has to specialise in. There is existence of theoretical knowledge.

•  There are various theories of management, as propounded by many management thinkers, which prescribe certain universal principles. A manager applies these scientific methods and body of knowledge to a given situation, an issue or a problem, in his own unique manner. A good manager works through a combination of practice, creativity, imagination, initiative and innovation. A manager achieves perfection after long practice. Students of management also apply these principles differently depending on how creative they are.
•  A manager applies this acquired knowledge in a personalised and skillful manner in the light of the realities of a given situation. He is involved in the activities of the organisation, studies critical situations and formulates his own theories for use in a given situation. This gives rise to different styles of management.

 

Management as a Science

Science is a systematised body of knowledge that explains certain general truths or the operation of general laws. The basic features of science are as follows:

-Systematised body of knowledge:

Science is a systematic body of knowledge. Its principles are based on a cause and effect relationship. For example, the phenomenon of an apple falling from a tree towards the ground is explained by the law of gravity.

-Principles based on experimentation:

Scientific principles are first developed through observation and then tested through repeated experimentation under controlled conditions.

- Universal validity:

Scientific principles have universal validity and application. Based on the above features, we can say that management has some characteristics of science.

• Management has a systematised body of knowledge.

It has its own theory and principles that have developed over a period of time, but it also draws on other disciplines such as Economics, Sociology, Psychology and Mathematics. Like all other organised activity, management has its own vocabulary of terms and concepts.

• The principles of management have evolved over a period of time based on repeated experimentation and observation in different types of organisations. However, since management deals with human beings and human behaviour, the outcomes of these experiments are not capable of being accurately predicted or replicated. Therefore, management can be called an inexact science. Despite these limitations, management scholars have been able to identify general principles of management.
• Since the principles of management are not as exact as the principles of science, their application and use is not universal. They have to be modified according to a given situation. However, they provide managers with certain standardised techniques that can be used in different situations. These principles are also used for training and development of managers.

Management as a Profession

 A profession has the following characteristics:

Well-defined body of knowledge:

All professions are based on a well-defined body of knowledge that can be acquired through instruction.

 Restricted entry:

The entry to a profession is restricted through an examination or through acquiring an educational degree. For example, to become a chartered accountant in India a candidate has to clear a specified examination conducted by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India.

Professional association:

All professions are affiliated to a professional association which regulates entry, grants certificate of practice and formulates and enforces a code of conduct. To be able to practice in India lawyers have to become members of the Bar Council which regulates and controls their activities.

 Ethical code of conduct:

All professions are bound by a code of conduct which guides the behaviour of its members. All doctors, for example, take the oath of ethical practice at the time they enter the profession.

 Service motive:

The basic motive of a profession is to serve their client’s interests by rendering dedicated and committed service. The task of a lawyer is to ensure that his client gets justice.

Management does not meet the exact criteria of a profession. However, it does have some of the features of a profession:

• All over the world there is marked growth in management as a discipline. It is based on a systematic body of knowledge comprising welldefined principles based on a variety of business situations. This knowledge can be acquired at different colleges and professional institutes and through a number of books and journals. The subject of management is taught at different institutions. Some of these have been set up with the specific purpose of providing management education such as the Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) in India. Entry to different institutes is usually through an examination.

• There is no restriction on anyone being designated or appointed as manager in any business enterprise. Anyone can be called a manager irrespective of the educational qualifications possessed. Unlike professions such as medicine or law which require a practicing doctor or lawyer to possess valid degrees, nowhere in the world is it mandatory for a manager to possess any such specific degree. But professional knowledge and training is considered to be a desirable qualification, since there is greater demand for those who possess degrees or diplomas from reputed institutions. Therefore, as such the second criterion has not been strictly met.
• There are several associations of practising managers in India, like the AIMA (All India Management Association) that has laid down a code of conduct to regulate the activities of their members. There is, however, no compulsion for managers to be members of such an association nor does it have any statutory backing.
• The basic purpose of management is to help the organisation achieve its stated goal. This may be profit maximisation for a business enterprise and service for a hospital. However, profit maximisation as the objective of management does not hold true and is fast changing. Therefore, if an organisation has a good management team that is efficient and effective it automatically serves society by providing good quality products at reasonable prices.

 

Levels of Management-

Every individual in the hierarchy is responsible for successful completion of a particular task. To be able to fulfill that responsibility he is assigned a certain amount of authority or the right to take a decision. This authority-responsibility relationship binds individuals as superiors and subordinates and gives rise to different levels in an organisation. Generally speaking there are three levels in the hierarchy of an organisation.

Top Management:

They consist of the senior-most executives of the organisation by whatever name they are called. They are usually referred to as the chairman, the chief executive officer, chief operating officer, president and vice-president. Top management is a team consisting of managers from different functional levels, heading finance, marketing etc. For example chief finance officer, vice president (marketing). Their basic task is to integrate diverse elements and coordinate the activities of different departments according to the overall objectives of the organisation. These top level managers are responsible for the welfare and survival of the organisation. They analyse the business environment and its implications for the survival of the firm. They formulate overall organisational goals and strategies for their achievement. They are responsible for all the activities of the business and for its impact on society. The job of the top manager is complex and stressful, demanding long hours and commitment to the organisation.

Middle Management:

It is the link between top and lower level managers. They are subordinate to top managers and superior to the first line managers. They are usually known as division heads, for example production manager. Middle management is responsible for implementing and controlling plans and strategies developed by top management. At the same time they are responsible for all the activities of first line managers. Their main task is to carry out the plans formulated by the top managers. For this they need to:

- -(i) interpret the policies framed by top management,

--(ii) ensure that their department has the necessary personnel,

--(iii) assign necessary duties and responsibilities to them

-- (iv) motivate them to achieve desired objectives, and

--(v) cooperate with other departments for smooth functioning of the organisation. At the same time they are responsible for all the activities of first line managers.

 Supervisory or Operational Management:

Foremen and supervisors comprise the lower level in the hierarchy of the organisation. Supervisors directly oversee the efforts of the workforce. Their authority and responsibility is limited according to the plans drawn by the top management. Supervisory management plays a very important role in the organisation since they interact with the actual work force and pass on instructions of the middle management to the workers. Through their efforts quality of output is maintained, wastage of materials is minimised and safety standards are maintained. The quality of workmanship and the quantity of output depends on the hard work, discipline and loyalty of the workers.

 

Classification  of Managerial Skills-

1. Technical skills
2. Human skills
3. Conceptual skills

1. Henry Fayol who is  also known as ‘Founder of Modern Management Theory’, defined the elements of management into 5 managerial functions and 6 activities:

Activities are :

1. Technical

 2. Commercial

3. Financial

4. Security

5. Accounting

 6. Managerial

 

1. As per Newmann & summer managing process can be defined as function of.

1. Organising
2. Planning
3. Leading
4. Controlling

SCOPE OF MANAGEMENT

•  SUBJECT MATTER OF MANAGEMENT

Process of management is planning , organizing, staffing, directing & controlling.

•  FUNCTIONAL AREA OF MANAGEMENT

It includes accounting, budgetary control, quality control, financial planning and managing the overall finances of an organization.

• PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

It includes recruitment, training, transfer promotion, demotion, retirement, termination, labor-welfare and social security industrial relations.

•  PURCHASING MANAGEMENT

It includes inviting tenders for raw materials, placing orders, entering into contracts and materials control.

• PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

includes production planning, production control techniques, quality control and inspection and time and motion studies.

• MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT

It involves proper care and maintenance of the buildings, plants, and machinery.

• TRANSPORT MANAGEMENT

It includes packing, warehousing and transportation by rail, road, and air.

• DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT

It includes marketing, market research, price – determination, taking market- risk and advertising, publicity and sales promotion.

• OFFICE MANAGEMENT

It includes activities to properly manage the layout, staffing and equipment of the office.

• DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT

It involves experimentation and research of production techniques, markets, etc.

COORDINATION –Essence of Management

Coordination is the force that binds all the other functions of management. It is the common thread that runs through all activities such as purchase, production, sales, and finance to ensure continuity in the working of the organisation.

Characteristics of Coordination –

Coordination integrates group efforts:

or diverse interests into purposeful work activity. It gives a common focus to group effort to ensure that performance is as it was planned and scheduled.

Coordination ensures unity of action:

The purpose of coordination is to secure unity of action in the realisation of a common purpose.

Coordination is a continuous process: Coordination is not a one-time function but a continuous process. It begins at the planning stage and continues till controlling.

Coordination is an all pervasive function:

Coordination is required at all levels of management due to the interdependent nature of activities of various departments. It integrates the efforts of different departments and different levels.

Coordination is the responsibility of all managers:

Coordination is the function of every manager in the organisation.

Top level managers need to coordinate with their subordinates to ensure that the overall policies for the organisation are duly carried out.

 Middle level management coordinates with both the top level and first line managers.

Operational level management coordinates the activities of its workers to ensure that work proceeds according to plans.

Coordination is a deliberate function:

 A manager has to coordinate the efforts of different people in a conscious and deliberate manner. Cooperation in the absence of coordination may lead to wasted effort and coordination without cooperation may lead to dissatisfaction among employees. Coordination, therefore, is not a separate function of management, but its very essence.

IMPORTANCE OF COORDINATION-

             (i) Growth in size:

All individuals differ in their habits of work, background, approaches to situations and relationships with others. It becomes necessary to ensure that all individuals work towards the common goals of the organisation. But employees may have their own individual goals also. Therefore, for organisational efficiency, it is important to harmonise individual goals and organisational goals through coordination.

(ii) Functional differentiation:

 Functions of an organisation are divided into departments, divisions and sections. In an organisation there may be separate departments of finance, production, marketing or human resources.

(iii) Specialisation:

 Modern organizations are characterized by a high degree of specialization. Specialization arises out of the complexities of modern technology and the diversity of tasks to be performed. Organizations, therefore, need to employ a number of specialists.

Development of Management Theory-

Management in some form or the other has been a concern for organised cooperation ever since the dawn of civilization. Thus, one can witness recognition of organization and management in the Buddhist order and the Sangha as far back as 530 B.C. Roman Catholic Church and ‘military organizations’ also offer good examples of early application of management principles.

The principles of management & scientific of management were given by Henry Fayol & FW Taylor.

Management is all pervasive:

 The activities involved in managing an enterprise are common to all organisations whether economic, social or political. A petrol pump needs to be managed as much as a hospital or a school. What managers do in India, the USA, Germany or Japan is the same. How they do it may be quite different. This difference is due to the differences in culture, tradition and history.