Accounting Standards : Inventories

The dictionary defines the word ‘inventory’ as stock of goods. But, inventory means such type of assets that will be disposed of in future in the ordinary course of business. Bolten S.E. has defined it as, “inventory refers to the stock-pile of the product a firm is offering for sale and the components that make up the product.” In other words, inventory is used to represent the aggregate of those items of tangible assets which are

(i) held for sale in ordinary course of the business;

(ii) in process of production for Inventory Management such sale; or

(iii) to be currently consumed in the production of goods or services to be available for sale. Inventories are held basically to smoothen the operations of the firm. Shortage of inventory at any point would disrupt operations resulting in either idle time for men and machine or lost sales.

Inventories : Standards

The following terms are used in this Standard with the meanings specified:

Inventories are assets:

•     held for sale in the ordinary  course of business;
•     in the process of production for such sale; or
•     in the form of materials or supplies to be consumed in the production process or in the rendering of services.

Net realisable value refers to the net amount that an entity expects to realize from the sale of inventory in the ordinary course of business. Net realisable value is the estimated selling price in the ordinary course of business less the estimated costs of completion and the estimated costs necessary to make the sale.

Fair value reflects the amount for which the same inventory could be exchanged between knowledgeable and willing buyers and sellers in the marketplace. Fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged, or a liability settled, between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm’s length transaction.The former is an entity-specific value; the latter is not. Net realisable value for inventories may not equal fair value less costs to sell.

Inventories encompass goods purchased and held for resale including, for example, merchandise purchased by a retailer and held for resale, or land and other property held for resale. Inventories also encompass finished goods produced, or work in progress being produced, by the entity and include materials and supplies awaiting use in the production process. In the case of a service provider, inventories include the costs of the service, as described in paragraph 19, for which the entity has not yet recognized the related revenue (see Ind AS 18,Revenue).

Measurement of inventories

Inventories shall be measured at the lower of cost and net realisable value. The cost of inventories shall comprise all costs of purchase, costs of conversion and other costs incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition.

Costs of purchase

The costs of purchase of inventories comprise the purchase price, import duties and other taxes (other than those subsequently recoverable by the entity from the taxing authorities), and transport, handling and other costs directly attributable to the acquisition of finished goods, materials and services. Trade discounts, rebates and other similar items are deducted in determining the costs of purchase.

Costs of conversion

The costs of conversion of inventories include costs directly related to the units of production, such as direct labour. They also include a systematic allocation of fixed and variable production overheads that are incurred in converting materials into finished goods. Fixed production overheads are those indirect costs of production that remain relatively constant regardless of the volume of production, such as depreciation and maintenance of factory buildings and equipment, and the cost of factory management and administration. Variable production overheads are those indirect costs of production that vary directly, or nearly directly, with the volume of production, such as indirect materials and indirect labour.

The allocation of fixed production overheads to the costs of conversion is based on the normal capacity of the production facilities. Normal capacity is the production expected to be achieved on average over a number of periods or seasons under normal circumstances, taking into account the loss of capacity resulting from planned maintenance. The actual level of production may be used if it approximates normal capacity. The amount of fixed overhead allocated to each unit of production is not increased as a consequence of low production or idle plant. Unallocated overheads are recognised as an expense in the period in which they are incurred. In periods of abnormally high production, the amount of fixed overhead allocated to each unit of production is decreased so that inventories are not measured above cost.

Variable production overheads are allocated to each unit of production on the basis of the actual use of the production facilities.

A production process may result in more than one product being produced simultaneously. This is the case, for example, when joint products are produced or when there is a main product and a by-product. When the costs of conversion ofAnchor each product are not separately identifiable, they are allocated between the products on a rational and consistent basis. The allocation may be based, for example, on the relative sales value of each product either at the stage in the production process when the products become separately identifiable, or at the completion of production. Most by-products, by their nature, are immaterial. When this is the case, they are often measured at net realisable value and this value is deducted from the cost of the main product. As a result, the carrying amount of the main product is not materially different from its cost.

Other costs

Other costs are included in the cost of inventories only to the extent that they are incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition. For example, it may be appropriate to include non-production overheads or the costs of designing products for specific customers in the cost of inventories.

Examples of costs excluded from the cost of inventories and recognised as expenses in the period in which they are incurred are:

•     abnormal amounts of wasted materials, labour or other production costs;
•     storage costs, unless those costs are necessary in the production process before a further production stage;
•     administrative overheads that do not contribute to bringing inventories to their present location and condition; and
•     selling costs.

Ind AS 23, Borrowing Costs, identifies limited circumstances where borrowing costs are included in the cost of inventories.

An entity may purchase inventories on deferred settlement terms. When the arrangement effectively contains a financing element, that element, for example a difference between the purchase price for normal credit terms and the amount paid, is recognised as interest expense over the period of the financing. Cost of inventories of a service provider

To the extent that service providers have inventories, they measure them at the costs of their production. These costs consist primarily of the labour and other costs of personnel directly engaged in providing the service, including supervisory personnel, and attributable overheads. Labour and other costs relating to sales and general administrative personnel are not included but are recognised as expenses inAnchor the period in which they are incurred. The cost of inventories of a service provider does not include profit margins or non-attributable overheads that are often factored into prices charged by service providers.

Cost of agricultural produce harvested from biological assets

In accordance with Ind AS 41, Agriculture, inventories comprising agricultural produce that an entity has harvested from its biological assets are measured on initial recognition at their fair value less costs to sell at the point of harvest. This is the cost of the inventories at that date for application of this Standard.

Techniques for the measurement of cost

Techniques for the measurement of the cost of inventories, such as the standard cost method or the retail method, may be used for convenience if the results approximate cost. Standard costs take into account normal levels of materials and supplies, labour, efficiency and capacity utilization. They are regularly reviewed and, if necessary, revised in the light of current conditions.

The retail method is often used in the retail industry for measuring inventories of large numbers of rapidly changing items with similar margins for which it is impracticable to use other costing methods. The cost of the inventory is determined by reducing the sales value of the inventory by the appropriate percentage gross margin. The percentage used takes into consideration inventory that has been marked down to below its original selling price. An average percentage for each retail department is often used.

Cost Formulas

The cost of inventories of items that are not ordinarily interchangeable and goods or services produced and segregated for specific projects shall be assigned by using specific identification of their individual costs.

Specific identification of cost means that specific costs are attributed to identified items of inventory. This is the appropriate treatment for items that are segregated for a specific project, regardless of whether they have been bought or produced. However, specific identification of costs is inappropriate when there are large numbers of items of inventory that are ordinarily interchangeable. In such circumstances, the method of selecting those items that remain in inventories could be used to obtain predetermined effects on profit or loss.

The cost of inventories, other than those dealt with in paragraph 23, shall be assigned by using the first-in, first-out (FIFO) or weighted average cost formula. An entity shall use the same cost formula for all inventories having a similar nature and use to the entity. For inventories with a different nature or use, different cost formulas may be justified.

Indian Accounting Standard (Ind AS ) 41, Agriculture, is under formulation.

Accordingly,  this  paragraph  would  be  effective  from  the  date  Ind  AS  41, Agriculture, comes into effect.

For example, inventories used in one operating segment may have a use to the entity different from the same type of inventories used in another operating segment. However, a difference in geographical location of inventories (or in the respective tax rules), by itself, is not sufficient to justify the use of different cost formulas.

The FIFO formula assumes that the items of inventory that were purchased or produced first are sold first, and consequently the items remaining in inventory at the end of the period are those most recently purchased or produced. Under the weighted average cost formula, the cost of each item is determined from the weighted average of the cost of similar items at the beginning of a period and the cost of similar items purchased or produced during the period. The average may be calculated on a periodic basis, or as each additional shipment is received, depending upon the circumstances of the entity.

Net realisable value

The cost of inventories may not be recoverable if those inventories are damaged, if they have become wholly or partially obsolete, or if their selling prices have declined. The cost of inventories may also not be recoverable if the estimated costs of completion or the estimated costs to be incurred to make the sale have increased. The practice of writing inventories down below cost to net realizable value is consistent with the view that assets should not be carried in excess of amounts expected to be realized from their sale or use.

Inventories are usually written down to net realisable value item by item. In some circumstances, however, it may be appropriate to group similar or related items.

This may be the case with items of inventory relating to the same product line that have similar purposes or end uses, are produced and marketed in the same geographical area, and cannot be practicably evaluated separately from other items in that product line. It is not appropriate to write inventories down on the basis of a classification of inventory, for example, finished goods, or all the inventories in a particular operating segment. Service providers generally accumulate costs in respect of each service for which a separate selling price is charged. Therefore, each such service is treated as a separate item.

Estimates of net realisable value are based on the most reliable evidence available at the time the estimates are made, of the amount the inventories are expected to realize. These estimates take into consideration fluctuations of price or cost directly relating to events occurring after the end of the period to the extent that such events confirm conditions existing at the end of the period.

Estimates of net realisable value also take into consideration the purpose for which the inventory is held. For example, the net realisable value of the quantity of inventory held to satisfy firm sales or service contracts is based on the contract price.

If the sales contracts are for less than the inventory quantities held, the net realizable value of the excess is based on general selling prices. Provisions may arise from firm sales contracts in excess of inventory quantities held or from firm purchase contracts.

Such provisions are dealt with under Ind AS 37 , Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets.

Materials and other supplies held for use in the production of inventories are not written down below cost if the finished products in which they will be incorporated are expected to be sold at or above cost. However, when a decline in the price of materials indicates that the cost of the finished products exceeds net realisable value, the materials are written down to net realisable value. In such circumstances, the replacement cost of the materials may be the best available measure of their net realisable value.

A new assessment is made of net realisable value in each subsequent period.

When the circumstances that previously caused inventories to be written down below cost no longer exist or when there is clear evidence of an increase inAnchor net realizable value because of changed economic circumstances, the amount of the write-down is reversed (ie the reversal is limited to the amount of the original write-down) so that the new carrying amount is the lower of the cost and the revised net realisable value.

This occurs, for example, when an item of inventory that is carried at net realizable value, because its selling price has declined, is still on hand in a subsequent period and its selling price has increased.

Recognition as an expense

When inventories are sold, the carrying amount of those inventories shall be recognised as an expense in the period in which the related revenue is recognised.

The amount of any write-down of inventories to net realisable value and all losses of inventories shall be recognised as an expense in the period the write-down or loss occurs. The amount of any reversal of any write-down of inventories, arising from an increase in net realisable value, shall be recognized as a reduction in the amount of inventories recognised as an expense in the period in which the reversal occurs.

Some inventories may be allocated to other asset accounts, for example, inventory used as a component of self-constructed property, plant or equipment. Inventories allocated to another asset in this way are recognized as an expense during the useful life of that asset.

Disclosure

The financial statements shall disclose:

    the accounting policies adopted in measuring inventories, including the cost formula used;
    the total carrying amount of inventories and the carrying amount in classifications appropriate to the entity;
    the carrying amount of inventories carried at fair value less costs to sell;
    the amount of inventories recognized as an expense during the period;
    the amount of any reversal of any write-down that is recognized as a reduction in the amount of inventories recognized as expense in the period in accordance with paragraphAnchor
    the circumstances or events that led to the reversal of a write-down of inventories in accordance with paragraph
    the carrying amount of inventories pledged as security for liabilities.

Information about the carrying amounts held in different classifications of inventories and the extent of the changes in these assets is useful to financial statement users. Common classifications of inventories are merchandise, production supplies, materials, work in progress and finished goods. The inventories of a service provider may be described as work in progress.

An entity adopts a format for profit or loss that results in amounts being disclosed other than the cost of inventories recognised as an expense during the period. Under this format, the entity presents an analysis of expenses using a classification based on the nature of expenses. In this case, the entity discloses the costs recognised as an expense for raw materials and consumables, labour costs and other costs together with the amount of the net change in inventories for the period.