Is an activity of the primary sector but it provides raw materials for agro-based industries. These raw materials are used for manufacturing finished products paving the way for the promotion of secondary sector. More than 50 per cent of the world’s population is engaged in agriculture. It is the most important occupation of human beings. The percentage of work force engaged in agriculture is less than 10 percent in developed countries whereas in developing countries it is about 75 percent.

Agricultural systems in the World

1.       Simple subsistence Farming. This form of agriculture is widely practised by many tribes of the tropics especially in Africa, in tropical south and Central America and in South-East Asia. It is better known as shifting cultivation. Farming is on a self-sufficient basis and farmers grow food only for themselves and their families.

2.       Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: This form of agriculture is best developed in and practically confined to the monsoon lands of Asia. It is found in China, Japan, Korea, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, the greater part of continental South-East Asia and parts of insular South-East Asia (Java-Luzon Visayan Islands, coastal Sumatra and Malaysia Farming in both the wet lowlands and the terraced uplands has to be very intensive to support a dense population.

3.       Plantation Agriculture: The specialized commercial cultivation of cash crops on estates of plantations and is found in many parts of Asia, Africa and tropical and subtropical America. Some of the main plantation crops are rubber, oil palm, cotton and copra, beverages like coffee, tea and cocoa, fruits like pineapples and bananas, as well as sugarcane, hemp and jute.

4.       Extensive Mechanized Grain Cultivation: This is a recent development in the continental lands of the mid-latitudes, which were once roamed by nomadic herdsmen. It was the invention of farm machinery which enabled farmers to cultivate grain on a large scale, and there is market specialization in wheat monoculture in many areas. Communication with the outside world is mainly by railways and the bulk of the grain harvest is exported. This is, in fact, a type of plantation agriculture in temperate latitudes.

5.        Nomadic Herding: This is an extensive from of animal grazing on natural pastures, involving constant or seasonal migration of the nomads and their flocks.

6.      Mediterranean agriculture: Within the Mediterranean climatic region, where there is winter rain and summer drought, a distinctive type of agriculture has evolved. This type of farming is also found in irrigated semi-desert and desert areas in similar latitudes. Farming is intensive, highly specialized and rather varied in the kinds of crops raised. Subsistence agriculture occurs side by side with commercial farming. Many crops such as wheat, barley and vegetables, are raised for domestic consumption, while others like citrus fruits, olives, and grapes are mainly for export. The Mediterranean lands are, in fact, the orchard lands of the world.

7.       Dairy farming: In various parts of Western Europe, e.g. Britain, Denmark, the Netherlands, southern Scandinavian, Switzerland, to the south of the Great Lakes and in the North Atlantic states of North American (the Hay and Dairy Belt), farmers specialize in commercial dairy farming, which is a highly intensive type of livestock farming mainly for milk and also for meat.

8.       Market gardening and horticulture: Market gardening is well developed in  densely populated industrial districts of north Western Europe: in Britain, Denmark, Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands; and in northeastern U.S.A.

AGRICULTURAL TYPOLOGY

‘Floriculture’: Cultivation of flowers for commercial purpose. ‘Horticulture’: Cultivation of flowers, fruits & vegetables intensively. ‘Market Gardening’: Labour and capital intensive production of flowers, fruits, vegetables on the outskirts of cities. Mono Culture: Large scale cultivation of any single plant species. Mixed Farming: Combination of agriculture and pastoral farming. Dairy Farming: Cattle rearing for milk and its various products. Seri Culture: Production of silk. Silvi Culture: Cultivation of trees. Plantation Farming: Large scale production of agriculture practiced mainly in tropical regions where in the land plot is cultivated for a few years and then ‘Slash & Burn’ method is used in order to restore the fertility. Thus a cyclic agriculture is followed. Nomadic Herding: Pastoral farming with movement of herds towards the region of good pasture, mainly concerned with arid and hilly region of adverse climatic seasons and mainly practiced by primitive societies. Transhumance: In the mountain regions of Himalayas, Alps, rocky the people move to suitable place along with their herds in the adverse climatic season and as it returns to normal they come back to their homeland. Here the people have their permanent settlement.

Farming Organization

The following are the main kinds of farming organization.

i.       Owner-occupation and Tenancy: Many farmers own their own land and many more rent or lease land from a landowner. About 40 per cent of the world’ farmers fall in these categories. The most important such system is share cropping or metayage which is practised in parts of the U.S.A. Latin America and Europe.

ii.      Estate Farming: The large estate was the traditional type of farm in much of Southern Europe, e.g. Spain, Italy, as well as in Latin America and other ‘new’ lands. Large estates in Europe are called latifundia, in America ranches, in Latin America estancias, haciendas or fazendas in Australia statiois and in many other areas plantations.

iii.     Cooperative Farming: This is an advanced form of farm organization which has proved workable in rural societies which have a literate population, capable of understanding the cooperative principles and competent in managing the business of the cooperative in the best interests of the farmers. In the more advanced countries like Sweden the Netherlands and Belgium, the cooperative movement has been very successful.

(iv)   Collective Farming: Since the Communists Revolution in 1917 in the Soviet Union, sweeping changes in agricultural practices were adopted throughout the length and breadth of the U.S.S.R. Other communist countries including Hungary, Romania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and China followed suit and introduced some form of collective farming. The communist definition of a collective farm is a voluntary productive cooperative union based on social ownership of the means of production and on collective labor which excludes the exploitation of man by man.

Soil Erosion

Soil erosion and soil impoverishment can be caused or aggravated by numerous bad farming practices. These are as follows,

i.        Over cropping. Over cropping causes the soils deteriorate when too many crops are grown on the same land without the farmer replacing lost mineral and organic material. Over cropping may occur in several ways.

a.       Monoculture. The crop is constantly using up particular types of minerals from the soil which it needs thereby making soil deficient in tht particular nutrient.

b.       Shifting cultivation: This type of cultivation of forest clearings can be very harmful. The destruction of the trees of fire means that the soil is no longer protected from the full force of heavy tropical rain nor is it consolidated and held together by plant roots. It is therefore quickly washed away.

Shifting cultivation world wide
S-Cultivations	Region
Guaicas	Amazon
Orang Asli	Malaysia
Ibans	E. Malaysia
Karens	Burma Hills
Meos	Thailand
Chins	Indo-China

 ii.      Overgrazing: The number of animals that can be grazed depends on the carrying capacity of the pasture, that is the number of animals which can graze, on the pasture without completely killing the grasses or other plants. Overgrazing can remove the grasses and the vegetation that bind the soil together thereby paving way for its erosion.

iii.      Deforestation: When men remove the natural forest cover of an area either for agriculture or for timber this usually exposes the area to soil erosion because the soil is no longer protected by the leafy canopy of the forest from heavy rain or strong winds.

iv.      Slope Cultivation: Where cultivation takes place on steep slopes, erosion is greatly aggravated if plants are arranged slope wise, i.e., in rows up and down the hill slope.

v.       Cultivation of Dry Areas: In semiarid areas the cultivation of crops may lead to erosion because the removal of the natural vegetation and the ploughing of the land loosens the soil and this enables the wind to blow it away.

Soil Conservation Methods

i.        Contour Ploughing. If ploughing is done at right angles to the hill slope, following the natural contour of the hill, the ridges and furrow break the flow of the water down the hill. This prevents excessive soil loss.

ii.       Terracing Slopes: Terracing is widely used in Monsoon Asia for wet paddy cultivation as the excess water and silt can be retained at each terrace to form flooded paddy-fields. Many tree crops such as rubber are also planted on terraces to combat soil erosion. Terraces are also used in temperate and semiarid regions where slopes are steep. Terracing enables farmers in mountainous regions to utilize the steep ground on the favored sunny slopes of valleys for vines or other crops.

iii.      Strip Cropping. Crops may be cultivated in alternate strips, parallel to one another. Some strips may be allowed to lie fallow to rejuvenate while others are sown to different kinds of crops. E.g. grains legumes, small tree crops. Tall growing crops act as wind-breaks and protect the soil.

iv.       Fallowing: Sometimes it is important to allow much-used land to rest or lie fallow, so that natural forces can act on the soil and restore its fertility.

v.       Cover Cropping: In some cases, as in plantation, where the gestation period of tree crops is huge, cover crops may be planted between the young trees.

vi.      Crop Rotation. It is not advisable to grow the same crop in the same field for more than two years in succession as the crop will tend to exhaust one particular kind of mineral nutrient. For example potatoes require much potash, but wheat requires nitrates. Thus it is best to alternate crops in the fields. Legumes such as peas, beans, clover, vetch and many other plants, add nitrates to the soil by converting free nitrogen in the air into nitrogenous nodules on their roots. By rotating different types of crops in successive years, soil fertility can be naturally maintained.

vii.     Crop diversification. This practice is often like crop rotation in that it helps to maintain soil fertility. In particular it reduces the danger of depending on a single crop (monoculture) when world commodity prices are failing. Another great advantage of crop diversification is that all types of land can be used. E.g. rubber can be grown on hill slopes, oil palm on flat plains, coconuts on sandy soils.

viii.    Use of fertilizers. Organic manures such as animal dung, compost or decomposed vegetation usually provide a balanced supply of the major soil minerals.

ix.      Water Management. By regulating the amount of water in the soil, aeration can be improved. Also, activity by useful bacteria can be stimulated and crop yields can be improved.

x.       Irrigation. When a region does not have sufficient natural precipitation to meet the plants moisture requirements an artificial supply of water is necessary. This is known as irrigation.

Agricultural Produce

The most common cereals include rice, wheat, maize, barley, rye, oats, millet and sorghum.

Rice

Rice (Oriza sativa), has been cultivated since time immemorial. In recent years, as a result of genetic research and plant breeding new and better strains of paddy have been devised, such as the IRS to IR20 and 22 Miracle Rice of the Philippines discovered at Rice Research Institute of Manila. As a food grain, it is more nutritious in its unpolished state.

Paddy cultivation is restricted to areas with at least 145 mm (45 inches) of annual rainfall. Paddy also needs flooded conditions with the depth of water varying from over 25 mm (1 inch) at the time of transplanting to as much as 150 mm for 10 weeks of growing period.

Paddy is best grown in regions of high light intensities and thus it is widely grown within the tropics and the warmer latitudes of the subtropics where the average temperature during the growing seasons is between 20oC (68oF) and 27oC (80oF). Abundant sunshine is essential during its four months of growth.

Soils: Provided there is sufficent water, paddy can be grown on a wide range of soils, from the podzolic alluvium of China to the impermeable heavy clay of central Thailand.

It requires three essential plant nutrients nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium.

The greatest producer of rice in the world is China followed by India and then Indonesia. Outside Monsoon Asia, major rice producers are Brazil, Egypt and U.S.A.

 

The Top 5 Rice Producing Countries
	Country	Rice Production 2012	% of World Total
		(metric tonnes)
1	China	204,285,000 m/t	28.40%
2	India	152,600,000 m/t	21.20%
3	Indonesia	69,045,141 m/t	9.60%
4	Viet Nam	43,661,569 m/t	6.00%
5	Thailand	37,800,000.m/t	5.20%
Sources:  FAOSTAT data, 2014

Wheat

Wheat the basic ‘bread-grain’ of the European civilization has been the chief source of human food for at least the past 6,000 years.

Wheat is an annual grass crop. Its stem grows to a height of 1 to 1.6 meters (3 to 5 ft). Is cylindrical in shape and is jointed. Most wheat is self-pollinated though a little natural cross-pollination also takes place at times.

Broadly speaking what is classified according to the season of sowing.

Winter wheat is usually grown in regions of the middle latitudes where winters are mild and cool but sufficiently damp and without severe frost. The seeds lie dormant in the winter, grow rapidly in the cool, wet spring and the wheat is harvested in the sunny summer. About 80 per cent of the world’s wheat is winter sown.

Spring wheat is grown in the colder north of the Canadian Prairies, as far north as the Peace River region, where winter temperatures may drop to 16o to 22oC (30o to 40oF) below freezing-point, and in parts of the continental Steppes and Siberia. Seeds can only be sown after the severe winter is over.

The wheat grows through the cool, moist spring and is harvested in late summer or early autumn. Quick-ripening species are now used to avoid autumn frosts which may ruin the crops before they are harvested.

Temperature: The optimum temperature for wheat during its growing period is around 15.5oC (60oF). The weather should be warm and moist during the early stages of growth and sunny and dry in the later stages and during the harvest, which will improve the final yield of the crop.

A frost-free period of 100 days is usually required but some fast-ripening varieties may mature in only 90 days. In moist soils, many winter wheat species can survive even with very low temperatures.

The Amount Of Moisture Required For Wheat Cultivation Varies Between 305 mm (12 Inches) And 1015 Mm (40 Inches).

The best soil for wheat is either light clay or heavy loam which is relatively stiff and gives the plant a firm support. The world’s best wheat comes from the chernozem soils in the ‘black earth’ region of the Ukrainian steppes the dark brown prairie earths of the North American Prairies and also the grey brown podzolic soils of the deciduous forest regions.

The World’s Greatest Commercial Wheat lands are the undulating temperature grasslands of the steppes, prairies, pampas and the Australian downs.

Leading wheat producers are European Union, China, India, Russia and USA. However, major exporters are U.S.A., Canada, Australia and Argentina.

Maize

Maize (Zea mays) is often known as India corn or simply corn and is another widely cultivated cereal. Maize ranks after wheat and rice as the third most important cereal.

Maize is a member of the Gramineae or grass family and grows to height to between 1 and 5 meters (4 and 16 ft).

In many parts of the world, especially in Southern U.S.A., in Central and South America, Africa, Southern Europe and some poorer Asian countries, maize is consumed as a food grain.

Maize usually requires summer temperatures of between 18⁰ and 27⁰ C. The most essential climatic factor is a period of 140 frost-free days.

The bulk of world’s maize output comes from regions with an annual precipitation of 635 to 1145 mm (25 to 45 inches).

Maize grows in a wide range of soil types from the temperate podzols to the strongly leached red soils of the tropics. It grows best however in deep rich soils of the sub-tropics where there is abundant nitrogen. In mountainous districts where soils may be thin and slopes are steep, maize can survive when other cereals fail to take root.

Well-drained plains in a warm, humid environment will accelerate growth.

The U.S.A. is by far the largest maize producer, accounting for almost half of the total world production. U.S.A. is also the largest exporter of corn. The other major maize producers such as China, Mexico or South Africa are non-exporters.

Barley

Barley (Hordewn vulgare) is the fourth most important cereal and is believed to be one of the most ancient.

It has very limite geographical requirements and can be grown in high latitudes, even beyond the Arctic Circle.

It is grown on the fringes of the Sahara Desert in Russian Turkestan and the Thar Desert of India where droughts are long and severe.

In many mountainous regions such as in Japan, Norway and Switzerland where the steepness of the slopes precludes the cultivation of other cereals barley can survive.

Barley is often the best crop to grow on dry chalk and limestone uplands in Europe.

The temperature lands of Europe and North America are the major barley producers.

Oats

The hardiest of all cereals, it is generally a spring sown crop. CIS leads in production followed by U.S.A. and Canada. Other major producers are West Germany, Poland, France and Australia.

Rye

Rye is the least extensively cultivated of the cereals, but because of its high gluten content, it ranks only next to wheat as a bread grain. It is thus the most adaptable crop to newly drained marshlands. Russia and CIS are the outstanding producers. Poland and Germany are also major producers.

Millet and Sorghum

They are grown in tropical and subtropical areas with low or seasonal rainfall less than 760 mm (30 inches) or as dry-season crop in rotation. Poor soils or difficult terrain also support millet. The U.S.A. is a major producer.

Vegetables and Fruits

Yams

Setts or small pieces of yam are planted, usually on mounds after the ground has been fertilized. Yams are best grown in tropical areas with a dry season. The major yam growers are Nigeria and other West African countries such as Togo, Benin and lvory Coast.

Sweet Potatoes

Similar to yams are sweet potatoes, which however, are subtropical and warm temperate crops rather than tropical. They are widely grown in Asia especially in China, Japan, and Taiwan and in the Pacific islands.

Root Crops

Root crops are those which store food in enlarged or swollen roots and include such crops as carrots, parsnips, turnips, swedes and beets. They are grown mainly in cool temperate lands.

Pulses

Pulses are leguminous plants such as peas, beans, lentils, soya beans and groundnuts. They occur in a great variety of forms suited to most climates.

Others

The most important is the onion, many varieties of which are grown all over the world. Tomatoes, which may be considered as a fruit rather than a vegetable are also widely grown in the warmer temperate areas.

Fruits

Fruits, like vegetables, play an important role in adding variety and providing important vitamins in the diet.

Tropical Fruits include bananas, pineapples, papayas, mangoes, dates, coconut, Brazil nuts and many others.

Dates

Dates are peculiar in that they will only grow in desert conditions. They are grown in all the desert areas of Africa and South-West Asia the leading producers being Egypt (16.5%), Iraq (17%), Iran (13%) and Saudi Arabia (12%).

Bananas

Are the most important tropical fruit both as a subsistence crop and in world trade. The main producing countries are Brazil, India (10.5 per cent), Indonesia Ecuador, Thailand Colombia and Honduras.

Pineapples

Are of importance of many parts of the tropics. They grow well in maritime positions and grow on peaty soils on coastal plains. China including Taiwan is the largest producer.

Nuts

Are produced in large quantities in the Mediterranean lands and find ready export markets in the cooler temperature regions. The main-producers of nuts are Spain, Italy and Turkey.

Grapes

Are grown widely in the Mediterranean lands not only of Europe but also of South Africa, Australia and the U.S.A. as well as in nearby sub tropical and warm temperate regions.

Citrus Fruits

Are the most important fruits of the warm-temperate and subtropical regions, and among citrus fruits the orange is the most widely grown. It is now regarded as a Mediterranean fruit but actually originated in China, where it is still grown in large quantities.

Israel grows ‘Jaffa’ oranges southern, Spain grows bitter Seville oranges, which are used for making marmalade, and ‘tangerines’ which are similar to the ‘mandarin’ oranges of China. Mandarin oranges are the main type used for canning.

Lemons

require similar conditions to oranges but are more sensitive to cold and drought. They are thus usually grown in coastal areas where the higher humidity and moderate temperatures are ideal, e.g. on the northern coast of Sicily and around Naples in Italy and around Los Angeles in U.S.A.

Deciduous Fruits

The deciduous fruits include apple, pears, plums, peaches, apricots, cherries and various nuts. e.g. the hazel nut. The cool temperate areas are also noted for a wide variety of soft fruits growing on shrubs, such as goose-berries, raspberries, red and black currents, cranberries and bilberries. Strawberries are also important in some areas.

Plums of various kinds are grown in Europe, C.I.S. and California, U.S.A. By far the most important of the temperate fruits is the apple. Another important use of apples is in the making of fermented drinks. France and Britain are major cider producers. China is the leading overall producer of apples.

Spices

Spices are important as flavorings for food. Cinnamon is the dried inner bark of a species of laurel and comes mainly from Sri Lanka. Cloves are dried flower buds of the clove tree, and come mainly from the islands to Pemba and Zanzibar off the East African coast, as well as from South-East Asia. Giner is very widely grown though it originally came from China. Nutmeg is the seed of a tree which came originally from Indonesia. Pepper is the most important spice of all. Most of the world’s pepper comes from Sarawak and Johore in Malaysia, southern India, Cambodia and Indonesia. It may be sold as black pepper or as the superior white pepper which is the same seed with the outer covering removed. Chilli is the pod of a small plant which grows in Asia and tropical, America. Ground dried chilli is called red or Cayenne pepper. Vanilla is a flavouring used in cakes, ice-cream and other cooked food. It is obtained from the seeds of a particular orchid, native to the South American forests and now produced mainly in Mexico, Madagascar  and Indonesia.

Beverages

The leading beverages, tea, coffee and cocoa, are all grown exclusively in the tropical or subtropical zones. Tea is the cheapest and the most universally drunk. Coffee is next in popularity and is tropical commodity in world trade. Cacao or cocoa is less important because its commercial cultivation began only late in the last century. Wine is the only beverage that is mostly consumed where it is produced.

Tea

Tea is made from the leaves of a tropical shrub, of the Camellia family, native to the hill slopes of Monsoon Asia.

A temperature of over 21oC (70oF) during the growing season of not less than eight months is ideal. Warm summers and frequent rains promote rapid reproduction and increase the number of annual pickings. Tea does best where the annual precipitation is between 1,2,70 and 6,350 mm (50 and 250 inches) and there is no prolonged dry season.

Tea can be cultivated in a wide range of physical and climatic conditions but it grows best in monsoon lands of the tropics and the subtropics.

Generally speaking, only two main kinds of tea enter international trade the more popular Black Tea from India and Sri Lanka, which is taken with milk and sugar and is used mostly in Europe and America, and the China or ‘Green Tea’, widely consumed in the Far East.

China was for centuries the greatest producer, consumer, and trader in tea. India is now leading producer followed by China and Sri Lanka.

The Top 5 Tea Producing Countries
	Country	Production 2011	% of World Total
		(metric tonnes)
1	China	1924457	36
2	India	1208780	22.6
3	Kenya	432400	8
4	Sri Lanka	340230	6.3
5	Vietnam	214300	4
Sources:   FAOSTAT data: 2016

Coffee

Coffee is the most abundantly produced of the nonalcoholic beverages. The coffee tree is a native of the highlands of southern Ethiopia and the name coffee is derived from that of the highland district of Kaffa where it was found. From Ethiopia, it was taken across the Red Sea to Saudi Arabia.

Coffee does well in hot climates and has been known to survive in day temperature of over 32oC (90oF) in the Arabian peninsula. However, coffee is usually grown in highland conditions where mean monthly temperatures range from 14oC (57oF to 78oF). Bright sunlight and warm weather are necessary for the harvesting and preparation of the berries for export.

Like tea, coffee needs abundant moisture and 2,030 mm (40 to 80 inches) of annual rainfall but will not tolerate stagnant water. Well-drained hill slopes which receive orographic rainfall are thus best for coffee-growing. Rainfall should be well-distributed.

The best quality coffee usually comes from plantations at high elevations and slopes between 610 and 1,830 meters (2,00ft and 6,000 ft) are preferred. Most of Brazil’s coffee is grown at about 760 meters (2,500 ft).

Brazil produces about a fifth of the worlds coffee requirements.

Brazil is by far the world’s biggest coffee producer, growing about a third of all coffee. Much of it is low quality, but some of the finest beans also hail from Brazil.                                                                          

Coffee trees come in two main types, arabicas and robusta. Arabicas produce better-tasting beans. The robusta tree is hardier and begets harsher beans. Ethiopia is the land of arabica and the origin of coffee production.                                        

Tanzania is also well known for its coffee. The region in the foothills of Mount Kilimanjaro, close to Tanzania’s border with Kenya, produces Tanzania Peaberry coffee.

Indonesia is such a famous coffee producer that one of its islands, Java, has become synonymous with the drink. As the world’s biggest robusta producer, much of the quality is not high. But the 10 percent of Indonesia’s beans that are arabica are some of the finest.

Cocoa

Cocoa from which both drinks and chocolate are made is obtained from the beans or seeds of the tropical tree.

Cocoa can be grown on a wide range of soils providing they are fairly deep and well-drained. Loamy soils rich in iron and potassium are ideal but light clays are also suitable.

Cocoa was first exported from the Gold Coast (Ghana), The West African states, especially Ghana, Nigeria, Ivory Coast and Cameroon, together account for nearly 60 per cent of world cocoa.

Wine

Wine is the fermented juice of almost any vegetative matter but grapes are the chief source and from these the world’s best wines are made. Its consumption is mainly confined to adults, but in countries like France and Italy, the top producers of wine, it is a national drink.

Wine is not only made from grapes, but in Europe the production of wine from various fruits (raspberries, apples), flowers (cowslips, dandelions) and from potatoes, parsnips, carrots or other vegetables is usually a domestic occupation and the wine is not made on a commercial scale. Rice wine is made in Japan, China and South-East Asia and has considerable commercial importance.

About two thirds of the world’s wine comes from the Mediterranean countries, the bulk is consumed locally, and only the best is traded. Italy and France are the greatest wine producers and also the greatest consumer. France is a major exporter but is a net importer of wine. The high grade wines like Sherry (Spain) Asti and Chianti (Italy) or Port (Portugal) that enter the international market are absorbed by other European consumers. Other lesser producers like Greece. Germany and Hungary have insignificant exports.

Beer

Beer is made from barley and hops and is brewed in almost every city in the world. The chief beer manufacturing countries are the U.S.A., Germany, the U.K., Denmark and Japan followed by France Czechoslovakia and Brazil.

Whiskey/Rum/Brandy/Vodka

Whisky is distilled from barley and was first made in Scotland and Scandinavia, though it is now produced in many other places, notably the U.S.A. and Japan.

Rum is made from molasses and was originally a by-product of the West India sugar industry. Brandy, the most famous type of which is Cognac from France, is distilled from grapes. Vodka, made in Russia, is distilled from potatoes.

Sugar-Cane

Sugar-cane is a member of the grass family and is a tall tropical variety with a hard, thick stem which grows to a height of 3.5 meters (12 ft) or more. Sugar is stored in the stem.

Sugarcane is a perennial crop which requires a hot climate with temperatures between 21o and 27oC (70o and 80oF) throughout the year. A dry, sunny season near harvest time is a great advantage as it promotes sugar accumulation.

Sugarcane requires abundant rainfall of at least 1,270 mm (50 inches). If it is grown with irrigation it needs only a moderate rainfall.

Sugarcane needs deep fertile soils which are water-retentive. Sugarcane is usually grown on flat or undulating lowlands to facilitate harvesting especially where there is a high degree of mechanization.

Sugarcane is grown in a very wide range of tropical and subtropical countries but the largest producers are from two main regions, namely Latin America and southern and eastern Asia. Many of the larger producers, however, such as India, Pakistan, Indonesia and Brazil, consume all or almost all of their own sugar and have little or none for export. Some of the major exporters, e.g. Taiwan and the West Indian islands such as Jamaica and Barbados, produce only a very small proportion of the world’s sugarcane because of their small size. The main importers of cane sugar are the U.S.A., U.K. and Japan. India (20 per cent of the world total) is the leading sugarcane producer. Cuba, where there is a very long tradition of sugar growing, is the leading Caribbean grower.

The Top 5 Sugar Cane Producing Countries
	Country	Sugar Cane Production 2012	% of World Total
		(metric tonnes)
1	Brazil	670,757,958 m/t	37.80%
2	India	347,870,000 m/t	19.60%
3	China	123,460,500 m/t	6.90%
4	Thailand	96,500,000 m/t	5.40%
5	Pakistan	58,038,000 m/t	3.20%
Sources:  FAOSTAT data, 2014

Industrial Crops

In this category the major crops are the fibres, natural rubber, the various vegetable oils, and tobacco.

Rubber

Rubber requires a plentiful supply of moisture; rainfall should be at least 1525mm (60 inches) and is usually 2030 or 2540 mm (80 or 100 inches).

Deep, friable well-drained soils are ideal as they promote root development and acidic soils are also suitable. Alluvial lowland soils are also ideal provided they are adequately drained.

Malaysia is the largest single producer. Indonesia and Thailand both have a significant production.

Groundnuts

Groundnuts (Arachis hygrogate) also known as peanuts, are the seeds of a low-ground leguminous plant. They require warm temperature and light to moderate rainfall of at least 380mm and between 625 and 890mm in drier interior regions. The main requirements, however, is a rich, sandy soil. The crop is usually grown in seasonally dry tropical and subtropical climates, e.g., in the savanna regions of West Africa, in the monsoonal climates of India and China as well as in southern U.S.A.

Soya Beans

(Glucine max) are a traditional crop of China. The plant is a warm temperate to cool temperate crop, requiring summer temperatures of around 21oC (70oF) and moderate rainfall (around 1015mm or 40 inches). Moisture-retentive soils are ideal but low atmosphere humidity is better than a moist atmosphere.

Soya beans are produced in three main areas of the world, namely the Far East, the U.S.A. and South America, U.S.A., Brazil and China are major producers.

Olives

Olives (Olea europaia) is the fruit of a tree of the Mediterranean lands) and has been cultivated in southern Europe, North Africa and South-West Asia since ancient times. The olive requires hot dry summers, cool winters without severe frosts, and rain only in the cooler months. It is thus almost limited to the Mediterranean regions. However, better yields are usually obtained in somewhat better watered areas, and irrigation is used in California.

The main producers are Italy, Spain and Greece, followed by Tunisia, Turkey, Portugal, Morocco and Syria.

Coconut

Coconut palms (cocas nucifera) are trees of the tropical coastlands. They require high temperatures and rainfall. Their ideal habitat is the sandy soils of the beaches and immediate inland areas, though they are grown successfully further inland in some places. The oil is obtained from the dried flesh of the nut or copra.

The leading copra-producing countries are the Philippines (50 per cent) and Indonesia followed by India and Sri Lanka.

Oil Palm

It requires heavy, well-distributed rainfall of about 2020mm (80 inches) constant high temperatures, and plenty of sunlight. Soil factors are not particularly important and the tree will tolerate a wide variety of soils.

The oil palm is grown in two main regions namely West Africa and South-East Asia. The main producers are Malaysia, Nigeria and Indonesia.

Linseed Oil

Linseed oil is obtained from the flax plant. They are also grown in warmer, drier areas than the flax raised for linen fibres. Linseed is grown mainly in Argentina, Canada, India, the U.S.A. Production in Argentina and Canada has increased substantially in recent years.

Tobacco

It is a native plant of tropical America. The crop requires moderate rainfall and rich, regularly fertilized soil. Although most tobacco is grown in warm temperate regions some is produced mainly for local use, in most tropical countries. It is grown in uplands in the cool season or the dry season, in tropical regions, but even so, apart from the output of certain favored areas, tropical tobaccos are of poorer quality than temperate ones.

The world’s largest tobacco producers are China and the U.S.A. followed by India, Brazil, Turkey, Japan, Bulgaria, S. Korea and Greece. The United States is the largest exporter of tobacco.

Cotton

Cotton is derived from the hairs surrounding the seeds of plants of the gossuplum family. Cotton varieties are usually distinguished by the staple length or length of the individual fibers. The longer the staple, the finer are the fibres. There are three main groups.

Egypt is the world’s major producer of long staple cottons land. Long staple cotton produces the highest quality textiles and is used for making sewing thread. Cotton needs a warm climate with a moderate rainfall. Temperatures reaching 25oC (77oF) or more in summer are ideal. Plenty of sunshine during the growing period is a great advantage but cooler conditions are preferred at harvest time. Cotton is thus cultivated largely in the tropical and subtropical latitudes, between 30oN and 30oS, of the equator.

Moderate to light rainfall is adequate for cotton cultivation. Cotton is best grown on flat or undulating land which facilitates the use of machinery.

The cotton textiles industry today is dominated by the major cotton-growers such as U.S.A., China, India and Pakistan.

Flax

The fibre is obtained from the stem of the plant and is very strong and durable). The textile made from flax are called linen. Flax grown for fibre does best in rather cool, temperate conditions.

 

TOP AGRICULTURAL AREA PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY[1]
Crop	Production Area (Lakh Hec.)		Productivity (M. tones/Hec.)		Production (Lakh M. Tonnes)
Wheat	World	2101.80		26.20		5507.70
	1. India 2. China 3. USA 4. Australia	259.00 222.60 213.80 124.00	1. UK 2. Germany 3. S. Africa 4. France	7.79 6.51 6.26 6.24	1. China 2. India 3. USA 4. France	864.90 651.00 635.90 305.80
Rice	World	1500.40		3.85		3869.80
	1. India 2. China 3. Indonesia 4. Bangladesh	440.00 267.60 117.80 109.00	1. Egypt 2. Australia 3. Greece 4. USA	9.85 8.25 7.64 7.45	1. China 2. India 3. Indonesia 4. Bangladesh	1124.60 864.00 342.50 260.00
Maize	World	1400.50		4.41		618.06
	1. USA 2. China 3. Brazil 4. Mexico	287.90 234.30 126.00 76.70	1. USA 2. Egypt 3. Canada 4. France	8.92 8.54 7.80 7.13	1. USA 2. China 3. Brazil 4. Mexico	2560.91 1158.30 415.00 210.00
Oilseed	World	1890.64		1.70		3217.70
	1. India 2. China 3. Brazil 4. Argentina	319.00 278.00 225.00 162.40	1. UK 2. Germany 3. France 4. Brazil	3.33 2.83 2.69 2.45	1. Brazil 2. China 3. Argentina 4. India	550.40 507.20 377.00 288.40
Soyabean	World	878.10		2.15		1885.20
	1. USA 2. Brazil 3. Argentina 4. China	292.70 213.00 140.00 93.00	1. Italy 2. Brazil 3. Bolivia 4. Argentina	3.00 2.47 2.44 2.43	1. USA 2. Brazil 3. Argentina 4. China	658.00 526.00 340.00 154.00
Barley	World	593.00
	1. Russia 2. Ukran 3. Canada 4. Australia	101.00 46.00 44.50 38.00	1. UK 2. France 3. Denmark 4. Germany	5.90 5.61 5.31 5.12	1. Russia 2. Canada 3. Germany 4. Span	180.00 123.00 106.70 87.00
Peanuts	World	224.30		1.43		321.80
	1. India 2. China 3. Nigeria 4. Indonesia	80.00 50.00 12.30 7.00	1. USA 2. Egypt 3. China 4. Brazil	3.54 3.17 2.68 2.33	1. China 2. India 3. USA 4. Indonesia	134.20 77.00 1.88 1.33
Cotton	World	312.70		1.13		354.80
	1. India 2. China 3. USA 4. Argentina	48.5 38.1 28.0 18.3	1. Syria 2. Australia 3. Brazil 4. Turkey	2.16 1.79 1.75 1.49	1. China 2. USA 3. India 4. Pakistan	87.4 60.5 58.4 32.9
Sunflower	World	226.3		1.16		263.1
	1. USA 2. Brazil 3. Argentina 4. China	48.5 38.1 28.0 18.3	1. France 2. Hungary 3. Argentina 4. Italy	2.16 1.79 1.75 1.49	1. Russia 2. Ukraine 3. Argentina 4. China	48.50 42.50 32.0 17.4
Barley	World	135.9		1.93		262.4
	1. Russia 2. Canada 3. USA 4. Australia	37.00 15.70 09.00 08.80	1. Germany 2. Norway 3. Sweden 4. Finland	4.62 4.44 3.89 3.07	1. Russia 2. Canada 3. USA 4. Australia	52.00 37.00 21.00 15.20
Rapeseed	1. China 2. India 3. Canada 4. Germany	72.20 67.50 46.90 12.70	1. UK 2. Denmark 3. France 4. Germany	3.33 3.18 3.09 2.87	1. India 2. Canada 3. Germany 4. France	68.00 66.70 36.40 93.40
Coarse Grain	World	3031.20		2.97		9007.1
	1. USA 2. India 3. Russia 4. Mexico	348.80 296.5 177.00 101.00	1. USA 2. France 3. Germany 4. Argentina	7.90 6.02 5.19 5.13	1. USA 2. China 3. India 4. Romania	2757.00 1246.00 350.00 305.00

 

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