A natural ecosystem is a community of living and non-living entities and occurs freely in nature. Every component interacts together as a combined unit through physical, chemical and biological processes.

WETLAND ECOSYSTEM:

Wetlands are areas intermediate in character between deepwater and terrestrial habitats, also transitional in nature, and often located between them.

Wetland are areas of marsh or fen, peat-land or water, whether artificial or natural, permanent or temporary, with water i.e. static or flowing, a fresh brackish or salt including areas of marine water, the depth of which at low tides does not exceed six meters. Mangroves, corals, estuaries, bays, creaks, flood plains, lakes etc. are covered under this definition.  

Characteristics:

• Covered by water (or) has waterlogged soil for at least seven days during the growing season.

• Adopted plant life (hydrophytes)

• Hydric soils (not enough oxygen available for some plants)

Uses :

• They are life support systems for people living around and are effective in flood control, waste water treatment, reducing sediment, recharging of aquifers and also winter resort for a variety of birds for shelter and breeding and provides a suitable habitat for fish and other flora and fauna.
• They also acts as bulwark against the encroachment by the sea and check soil erosion. Also, these act as a buffer against cyclones.
• They are valuable for their use in educational and scientific purposes and provide durable timber, fuel wood, and protein rich fodder for cattle, edible fruits, and vegetable.
• Over the years, based on the recommendations of National Wetlands Committee, 115 Wetlands have been identified so far for conservation under the National Wetland Conservation Programme
• Wetlands are threatened due to reclamation for developmental activities, pollution, increasing water demand, change in hydrological regime, over exploitation of resources, etc.

RAMSAR CONVENTION

• It is an intergovernmental treaty for the conservation & wise-use of wetlands.
• Signed in Ramsar, Iran in 1971 + into force -1975.
• It is the only global environment treaty dealing with a particular ecosystem.
• It is not affiliated with UNs system of multilateral environmental agreement.
• A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally.
• Wise use is the maintenance of ecological character within the context of sustainable development.
• As of December 2020 there are 42 recognized Ramsar sites in India -the highest in South Asia.
• Chilika Lake (Odissa) is the largest & the Renuka wetland (HP) are the smallest Ramsar Site of India
• Uttar Pradesh has the greatest number of Ramsar Sites in India.
• Most recent additions: Asan Barrage (Uttrakhand), Kabar / Kanwar Taal Lake (Bihar), Sur Sarovar (Agra,UP) & Lonar Lake (Buldhana, MH)

The new Ramsar sites of India are in three states – Uttar Pradesh (Nawabganj, Parvati Agra, Saman, Samaspur, Sandi and Sarsai Nawar), Maharashtra (Nandur Madhameshwar) and Punjab (Keshopur-Miani, Beas Conservation Reserve and Nangal).

The Ramsar Convention works closely with six other organisations known as international organization partners (IOPs). These are:

• BirdLife International
• International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
• International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
• Wetlands International
• WWF International
• Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT)

These organizations support the work of the convention by providing expert technical advice, helping implement field studies, and providing financial support. The IOPs also participate regularly as observers in all meetings of the conference of the parties and as full members of the Scientific and Technical Review Panel.

THE MONTREUX RECORD

The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the “List of Wetlands of International Importance”, where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring or are likely to occur as a result of technological developments, pollution or other human interference.

• It is the principle tool under the Ramsar convention for highlighting wetlands sites in need of priority conservation status.

• It is maintained as part of the Ramsar List, which needs at most priority conservation.

• There are two sites of India listed in Montreux record:
  • Loktak Lake (Manipur)
  • Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan)

• NWCP was implemented in the year 1985-86.
• Under the programme, 115 wetlands (Annexure) have been identified by the Ministry which require urgent conservation and management interventions.

Aim

• Conservation of wetlands to prevent their further degradiation and ensuring their wise use for the benefit  of local communities and overall conservation of biodiversity.

Objectives

• To lay down policy guidelines for conservation and management of wetlands in the country.
• To provide financial assistance for undertaking intensive  conservation measures in the identified wetlands.

Reasons for depletion

• Conversion of lands for agriculture: As the population increased and for food security there is need of more agricultural land.
• Anthropogenic activities: Due to unplanned urban and agricultural development, industries, road construction, impoundment, resource extraction and dredge disposal, wetlands have been drained and transformed, causing substantial economic and ecological losses in the long term.
• Urbanization: Wetlands near urban centres are under increasing developmental pressure for residential, industrial and commercial facilities. Urban wetlands are essential for preserving public water supplies.
• Introduced species: Indian wetlands are threatened by exotic introduced plant species such as water hyacinth and salvinia. They clog waterways and compete with native vegetation.
• Habitat Destruction and Deforestation
• Pollution: Unrestricted dumping of sewage and toxic chemicals from industries has polluted many freshwater wetlands
• Agricultural runoff : Following the Green Revolution of the 1970s, vast stretches of wetlands have been converted to paddy fields. Construction of a large number of reservoirs, canals and dams to provide for irrigation significantly altered the hydrology of the associated wetlands.
• Urbanization: Wetlands near urban centres are under increasing developmental pressure for residential, industrial and commercial facilities. Urban wetlands are essential for preserving public water supplies.
• Climate change : Increased air temperature; shifts in precipitation; increased frequency of storms, droughts, and floods; increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration; and sea level rise could also affect wetlands.

Mitigation

• Survey and demarcation
• Protection of natural regeneration
• Artificial regeneration
• Protective measures
• Afforestation (percentage survival to be indicated)
• Weed control
• Soil conservation measures & afforestation
• Wildlife conservation
• Removal of encroachments
• Eutrophication abatement
• Environmental awareness

Biologically most productive region à Receives the high amount of nutrients from fresh and marine water

• Estuaries are either once or twice, daily washed by the seawater.

Characters :

• An Estuary is a semi enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it.
• It has a free connection with the open sea.
• The complete salinity range from 0-35 ppt is seen from the head (river end) to the mouth (sea end) of an estuary.
• An estuary has very little wave action, so it provides a calm refuge from the open sea. It provides the shelter for some of the animals.
• It is the most productive region as it receives the high amount of nutrients from fresh and marine water.
• Estuaries are most heavily populated areas throughout the world, with about 60% of the world’s population living along estuaries and the coast.
• Most of India's major estuaries occur on the east coast. In contrast, the estuaries on the west coast are smaller. Two typical examples of estuaries on the west coast are the Mandovi and Zuari estuaries located to the north and south of the main campus of the National Institute of Oceanography at Dona Paula, Goa.

Major issues being faced by Indian Estuarine Ecosystems:

1. Changes in water flow (Excess or much lower than required): Increased melting of glacier etc had changed the flow of water and sediment load in the river.
2. Modification of estuarine catchments: Encroachment of  river basin areas by industries and human settlements
3. Pollution and Water Quality: Increased pollution had changed the composition of water.
4. Recreation and Tourism along with overuse of resources: Bad side of the human recreation and it’s impacted the river regime as we can see in Sundarban areas of West Bengal.
5. Encroachment of area by changing land use patterns
6. Reclamation of land: Construction activities in these areas as rise of population had led increased pressure over the land.
7. Climate change: Affected the river regime.

Benefits of Estuarine Ecosystem

Environmental Benefits

• Water quality regulation and groundwater recharge
• Habitat, breeding and nursery grounds for plants and animals
• Biological productivity
• Social Benefits
• Community values
• Indigenous values
• Recreation values
• Knowledge/Research values
• Economic Benefits
• Commercial fishing
• Ports and harbours
• Navigation
• Tourism
• Agriculture, aquaculture and industry
• Storm and erosion protection.

India has 14 major, 44 medium and 162 minor rivers. Major estuaries occur in the Bay of Bengal region. Westflowing rivers are generally fast-moving ones giving rise to formation of estuaries

Characteristics of mangroves.

• They are basically evergreen land plants growing on sheltered shores, typically on tidal flats, deltas, estuaries, bays, creeks and the barrier islands.
• The best locations are where abundant silt is brought down by rivers or on the backshore of accreting sandy beaches.
• Their physiological adaptation to salinity stress and to water logged anaerobic mud is high.
• They require high solar radiation and have the ability to absorb fresh water from saline/brackish water.
• It produces pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome respiration problem in the anaerobic soil conditions.

Tamil Nadu and Gujarat have been identified as cyclone prone states and mangrove conservation programmes are being strengthened in these states.

Mangrove under threats

• Mangrove ecosystems have been subjected to various anthropogenic and biotic pressures resulting in habitat destruction, loss of biodiversity, affecting avifauna and their migration paths.
• Unsustainable aquaculture, siltation, weed infestation, uncontrolled discharge of wastewater, industrial effluents, surface runoff, encroachment around these water bodies, etc. is resulting in shrinkage of mangrove area.
• Bangladesh and India share the 26,000 sq km mangrove kingdom, which is vulnerable to climate change.
• Mangroves are destroyed and converted for the use

1. agriculture
2. aquaculture,
3. fuel,
4. industrial purposes

Effective measures

• The Ministry of Environment and Forests launched the Mangrove Conservation programme in 1987 and, has so far, identified 35 mangrove areas for intensive conservation and management in the country.
• The Ministry of Environment and Forests has established a National Mangrove Genetic Resources Centre in Orissa.
• The national Green Tribunal Bill 2009: The National Green Tribunal (NGT) bill, 2009 was introduced in the Lok Sabha on 31st July, 2009. The Bill provides for the establishment of a national Environment Tribunal for the effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection and conservation of forests and other natural resources including enforcement of any legal right relating to the environment and giving relief and compensation for damages to persons and property.

Role of mangroves

• Mangrove plants have (additional) special roots such as prop roots, pneumatophores which help to impede water flow and thereby enhance the deposition of sediment in areas (where it is already occurring), stabilize the coastal shores, provide breeding ground for fishes.
• Mangroves moderate monsoonal tidal floods and reduce inundation of coastal lowlands.
• It prevents coastal soil erosion.
• It protects coastal lands from tsunami, hurricanes and floods.
• Mangroves enhance natural recycling of nutrients.
• Mangrove supports numerous flora, avifauna and wild life.
• Provide a safe and favorable environment for breeding, spawning, rearing of several fishes.
• It protects the coastal inland from adverse climatic ele-ments.
• It supplies woods, fire wood, medicinal plants and edible plants to local people.
• It provides numerous employment opportunities to local communities and augments their livelihood.

Indian Mangroves:

India houses the largest mangroves of the world; Sunderbans.

• Sunderbans is home to the Royal Bengal Tiger and crocodiles.
• Orissa’s Bhitarkanika mangroves is the 2nd largest in the Indian sub-continent.

• Majority coral reefs are found in tropical and sub-tropical water, however there are exceptions of deep-water corals in colder regions.

Coral Reefs are shallow water tropical ecosystems characterized by the remarkably high biomass production and rich floral and faunal diversity. Coral Reefs are particularly important to millions of people around the word as sources of high quality protein and cultured products. They provide raw materials for dwellings along the coast and protect fragile shorelines from damage and erosion. They are also of great value to the world at large as the hotspots of marine biodiversity. Recent estimates reveal that 95 per cent of the world’s Coral Reefs have been damaged by overfishing, dynamiting, pollution, poisoning or ship’s anchor.

The latest event of bleaching in Indian Ocean has caused considerable damage to the Coral Reefs in India.

Classification of Corals :

FRINGE REEFS PATCH REEFS BARRIER REEFS ATOLL

• Most common, contiguous with shore

PATCH REEFS

• Isolated and discontinuous lying shoreward of offshore reef

BARRIER REEFS

• Linear offshore structures.
• Run parallel to coastline.
• Water body between reef &
• shore is called ‘lagoon’

ATOLL

• Circular or semi -circular reefs, arise from subsiding sea floor platform

Features

• They occur in shallow tropical areas where the sea the water is clean, clear and warm.
• The coral reef cover in Indian waters is roughly estimated upto 19,000 sq. Km.
• Coral reefs are one of the most productive and complex coastal ecosystems with high biological diversity.
• The high productivity is owing to the combination of its own primary production and support from its surrounding habitat.
• Reef building corals are a symbolic association of polyps (coral animals) and ‘zooxanthellae’ (the microscopic algae)
• The corals are generally slow growing colonies of animals while zooxanthellae are fast growing plants.
• Even though corals live in nutrient poor waters, their capability to recycle the scarce nutrients (by the whole nutrient community) is enormous.
• In coral reef ecosystem, many invertebrates, vertebrates, and plants live in close association to the corals, with tight resource coupling and recycling, allowing  coral reefs have extremely high productivity and biodiversity, such that they are referred to as ‘the Tropical Rainforests of the Oceans’

Functions of Coral Reefs

• Coral reefs are natural protective barriers against erosion and storm surge.
• The coral animals are highly adapted for capturing plankton from the water, thereby capturing nutrients
• Largest biogenic calcium carbonate producer
• They provide substrate for mangroves
• Coral reefs provide habitat for a large variety of animals and plants including avifauna.

Threat

1. Natural causes may be due to the outbreak of reef destroying mechanisms, “bleaching” and depletion of essential symbionts.

2. Anthropogenic causes – may be due to chemical pollution (pesticides, cosmetics, etc), industrial pollution, mechanical damage, nutrient loading or sediment loading, Dredging, shipping, tourism, mining or collection, thermal pollution, intensive fishing,etc.

• Coral reef ecosystems world-wide have been subject to unprecedented degradation over the past few decades.
• Disturbances affecting coral reefs include anthropogenic and natural events. Recent accelerated coral reef decline seems to be related mostly to anthropogenic impacts (overexploitation, overfishing, increased sedimentation and nutrient overloading. Natural disturbances which cause damage to coral reefs include violent storms, flooding, high and low temperature extremes, El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, subaerial expo-sures, predatory outbreaks and epizootics.
• Exposure to chemicals like Cu, herbicides and oil leads to zooxanthellae loss

Coral reef bleaching is a common stress response of corals to many of the various disturbances mentioned above.

GOVERNMENT MEASURES TO PROTECT MANGROVE FOREST AND CORAL REEFS (OR COASTAL ECOSYSTEM):

• The Government seeks to protect, sustain and augment mangroves and coral reef in the country by both regulatory and promotional measures.
• Under the regulatory measures, the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification (2011) and the Island Protection Zone (IPZ) Notification 2011 regulates the development activities along the Sea coast and tidal influenced water bodies.
• The mangroves and coral reefs areas are categorized as ecological sensitive areas (CRZ-I) where no new constructions are permitted except projects relating to Department of Atomic Energy; pipelines, conveying systems including transmission lines; installation of weather radar for monitoring of cyclones movement and prediction by Indian Meteorological Department and construction of trans harbour sea link and without affecting the tidal flow of water.
• To enforce and implement the CRZ and IPZ Notifications, the Ministry of Environment and Forests has constituted the National and State/UT level Coastal Zone Management Authorities.

The Ministry of Environment & Forests also provides financial assistance to Coastal States/Union Territories, who so request, under its Centrally Sponsored Scheme for conservation and management of mangroves and coral reef.

• In addition Coral reef is included in Schedule I of the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972 which affords it the highest degree of protection.
• Further Protected Areas, viz.4 National Parks, 96 Sanctuaries and 3 Marine Biosphere Reserve have been created all over the country under the provisions of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to conserve marine life including coral reefs.
• The Wildlife Crime Control Bureau has also been set up to strengthen the enforcement of law for control of poaching and illegal trade in wildlife and its products.

KEY INITIATIVES TO PROTECT MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS:

Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction System (COMAPS):

• Being implemented from 1991.
• Assesses the health of coastal waters and facilitates management of pollution-related issues .
• Programme was restructured and modified in 2000–2001 to include pollution monitoring; liaison, regulation and legislation; and consultancy services.

Land Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone (LOICZ) :

• Launched in 1995
•  Investigates the effects of global change on the coastal zone
• Aims to develop, on a scientific basis, the integrated management of coastal environments

National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-systems

The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs approved the proposal for the merger of National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP) and National Wetlands Conservation Programme (NWCP) into a new scheme National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-systems (NPCA) with the objective of conserving aquatic ecosystems (lakes and wetlands) by implementing sustainable conservation plans. The Government of India and the StateGovernments would be sharing the costs in a ratio of 70:30 and (in case of the North-Eastern states the ratio is 90:10).

The principal objectives of the new scheme will be holistic conservation and restoration of lakes and wetlands for achieving desired water quality enhancement, besides improvement in biodiversity and the ecosystem, through an integrated and multidisciplinary approach with a common regulatory framework.The scheme would contribute to reduction of pollution loads and improvement in goods and services provided by these water bodies to stakeholders.

The new scheme will have conservation and management of lakes and wetlands in the country within its scope, to include inventory and information system on lakes and wetlands, national level directive on criteria for lakes and wetlands, regulatory framework, capacity building at state government and local body levels, evaluation etc.

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS OF INDIA

Convention On Biodiversity defines Marine Protected Area" as follows:

Any defined area within or adjacent to the marine environment, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by legislation or other effective means, including custom, with the effect with the effect that its marine and/or coastal biodiversity enjoys a higher level of protection then its surroundings. • As of 2010, there are more than 5,000 MPAs, encompassing 0.8% of the ocean's surface .

Traditionally, the Marine Protected areas have been established by individual nations. The World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 called for the establishment of marine protected areas consistent with international laws and based on scientific information, including representative networks by 2012. The Evian Agreement of 2003 (among G-8 nations) and Durban Action Plan 2003 calls for regional action and targets to establish a network of protected areas by 2010 within the jurisdiction of regional environmental protocols. There were calls for establishing protected areas for 20 to 30% of the world's oceans by the goal date of 2012.

India and Marine Protected Areas

India has around 8,000 kms of coastline with two island systems, viz, the Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep, and 2,305,143 Sq. Kms of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The marine and coastal environment of India harbours a host of resident and migratory wildlife. The important species found in the Indian waters include, Dugongs, Whales, Dolphins, Olive Ridley Turtles, a variety of fishes including the Whale Sharks & other sharks, Giant Groupers, Sea cucumbers, horseshoe crabs, sea shells, soft & hard corals, etc. of fishes including the Whale Sharks & other sharks, Giant Groupers, Sea cucumbers, horseshoe crabs, sea shells, soft & hard corals, etc.

India has at present 5 designated Marine Protected Areas as follows:

• Gulf of Mannar National Park, Tamil Nadu
• Gulf of Kutch Marine National Park, Gujarat
• Gulf of Kutch Marine Sanctuary, Gujarat,
• Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park, Andaman & Nicobar Islands
• Gahirmatha Sanctuary, Orissa.

India has only five marine Protected Areas. Compared to the marine diversity, is it too less and there is a greater need to have more marine Protected Areas in the country with well-developed management plans. Since, most of the marine species are migratory and not confined to one area only, management plans have to be based on large areas, rather than confining them to a Protected Area.