The Chalukyas (543-753 A.D.)

Chalukyas of Badami

• The most notable of the early medieval dynasties of the Deccan was that of the Chalukyas.
• Jayasimha was the first Chalukyan king. But Pulakeshin I is generally attributed to be the first Chalukyan king.
• He was succeeded by Maharaja Kirtivarman in 566 A.D.
• Pulakeshin II was the most prominent ruler of the dynasty who ruled from A.D. 608 and was a contemporary of Harshavardhan His fame was far extended even upto Persia, with whom he exchanged embassies.
• He was defeated and killed by the Pallava ruler Narsimvarman. 32 years later in 674, one of Pulakeshin’s son avenged his father’s death and captured Kanchi.

Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi

• Pulkeshin II’s brother, Kubja Vishnu Vardhan established a new dynasty with its capital at the ancient city of Vengi.
• But soon its power was declined and in about 10th century they allied the Cholas but the Chola king did not maintain the alliance and annexed the kindom in A.D. 1076

Western Chalukyas of Kalyani

• The kingdom founded by Taila II in 973, after defeating Amoghavarsha IV, the last Rashtrakuta ruler.
• He extended his kingdom upto southern part of Pormera kingdom of Malwa.
• Vikramaditya II Tribhuvanmall (1076-1126) was the greatest ruler of this dynasty and he was regarded as the hero of Bilhana’s
• Vikramankadevacharita. He is the founder of the Vikarm Samvat Era.
• Jagadekamall II, was the last ruler after whose death his Kalachuri minister Vijjala usurped his throne.

Extent of the empire

• The Chalukya dynasty reached its peak during the reign of Pulakesin II.
• His grandfather Pulakesin I had created an empire around Vatapi.
• Pulakesin II subjugated the Kadambas, the Gangas of Mysore, the Mauravas of North Konkan, the Latas of Gujarat, the Malavas and the Gurjars.
• He also succeeded in getting submission from the Chola, Chera and Pandya kings.
• He had also defeated King Harsha of Kannauj and the Pallava king Mahendravarman.

Chalukya Rulers

• Jayasimha was the first ruler of the Chalukyas.

Pulakesin I (Reign: 543 AD – 566 AD)

• Founded the empire with his capital at Vatapi.
• Performed Ashwamedha.

Kirtivarman I (Reign: 566 AD – 597 AD)

• Son of Pulakesin I.
• Conquered Konkan and northern Kerala.

 Mangalesha (Reign: 597 AD – 609 AD)

• Brother of Kirtivarman I.
• Conquered the Kadambas and the Gangas.
• Was killed by his nephew and son of Kirtivarman, Pulakesin II.

Pulakesin II (609 AD – 642 AD)

• The greatest of the Chalukya kings.
• Extended the Chalukya rule to most parts of the Deccan.
• His birth name was Eraya. Information about him is obtained from the Aihole inscription dated 634. This poetic inscription was written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language using the Kannada script.
• Xuanzang visited his kingdom. He has praised Pulakesin II as a good and authoritative king.
• Though a Hindu, he was tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism.
• He conquered almost entire south-central India.
• He is famous for stopping Northern king Harsha in his tracks while he was trying to conquer southern parts of the country.
• He had defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman I but was defeated and killed by Mahendravarman’s son and successor Narasimhavarman I in a series of battles he had with the Pallavas.
• For the next 13 years, Badami remained under Pallava control.
• Pulakesin II received a Persian mission as depicted in an Ajanta cave painting. He maintained diplomatic relations with the King of Persia Khusru II.
• His death saw a lapse in Chalukya power.

Vikramaditya I (655 AD – 680 AD)

• Son of Pulakesin II who plundered Kanchi, the capital of the Pallavas.

Kirtivarman II (746 AD – 753 AD)

• Great-great-grandson of Vikramaditya I.
• Last of the Chalukya rulers. Was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king, Dantidurga.

Administration and Society

• The Chalukyas had great maritime power.
• They also had a well-organised army.
• Though the Chalukya kings were Hindus, they were tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism.
• Saw great developments in Kannada and Telugu literature.
• Sanskrit along with the local languages thrived. An inscription dated 7th century mentions Sanskrit as the language of the elite whereas Kannada was the language of the masses.

Art and Architecture

• Art made great progress under their patronage.
• The temple architecture was a blend of Dravida and Nagara styles.
• They built about 70 temples at Aihole which is rightly regarded as the ‘cradle of Indian temple architecture’.
• Other famous temples include the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal, the Vishnu temple of Badami, the Shiva temple of Maguti and the Kasi Vishvesvara temple of Lakhundi.
• They gave patronage to Hinduism and Jainism.
• Their empire came to an end by A.D. 753 when their feudatory Rastrakutas defeated Kirtivarman.

Ikshavakus

• On the decline of the Satvahana power in the eastern part of the peninsula there arose the Ikshavakus in the Krishna Guntur region.
• They seem to have been a local tribe who adopted the dignified name of the Ikshavakus in order to show the antiquity of their lineage.
• They are mostly recalled for monuments like Nagarjunakonda and Dharanikota.
• They were overthrown by the Pallavas.

Pallavas (600-757 A.D.)

Origins

• The origins of the Pallavas are shrouded in mystery. There are several theories propounded by historians.
• Some historians say they are a branch of the Pahlavas of the Parthians who moved to the South.
• Some say they are an indigenous dynasty that arose within the Southern region and were a mix of various tribes.
• Some experts believe them to be of Naga origin who first settled around the Tondaimandalam region near Madras.
• Another theory says that they are descendent from a Chola prince and a Naga princess of Manipallavam (an island off Jaffna, Sri Lanka).
• Some others are of the opinion that the Pallavas were feudatories of the Satavahanas.
• The first Pallava kings ruled during the beginning of the 4th century AD. By the 7th century AD, there were three kingdoms in southern India vying for supremacy namely the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pandyas of Madurai and the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.

Extent

• The Pallava capital was Kanchipuram.
• Their territories at the height of their powers extended from northern part of Andhra Pradesh to River Kaveri in the South.
• During the seventh century, the Cholas were reduced to a marginal state by the authority of the Pallavas.
• Vatapi (Badami) was occupied by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman who defeated the Chalukyas.
• The Kalabhra uprising was crushed by the Pandyas, Chalukyas and the Pallavas jointly. The Kalabhras were protesting against the numerous land grants (Brahamadeya) to Brahmanas made by the Brahmanic rulers of the three dynasties.

Pallava Rulers

Sivaskanda Varman

• Greatest among the early rulers. Ruled in the beginning of the 4th century AD.
• Performed Ashwamedha and other Vedic sacrifices.
   

Simhavarman/Simhavishnu (Reign: 575 AD – 600 AD)

• Was a Buddhist.
• Included Sri Lanka in his kingdom.
• Defeated the contemporary Tamil ruler. Pallava history assumes a definite character from this ruler onwards.

Mahendravarman (Reign: 600 AD – 630 AD)

• Succeeded Simhavishnu who was his father.
• He was a poet and composed Vichitrachita and Mahavilasa Prahasana.
• He introduced rock cut temple architecture.
• Was a Jain who converted to Saivism.
• Had on-going rivalry and battles with Pulakesin II of Chalukya dynasty.
• Mahendravarman died in battle with the Chalukyas. He was an able and efficient ruler.

Narasimhavarman I (630 AD – 668 AD)

• Son and successor of Mahendravarman.
• Considered the greatest of the Pallavas. Also called Narasimhavarman Mahamalla/Mamalla.
• Defeated and killed Pulakesin II in 642 AD. He took control of Vatapi, the Chalukya capital and assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’.
• Also vanquished the Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas.
• He sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka and reinstated the Sinhalese Prince Manivarma.
• He founded the city of Mamallapuram or Mahabalipuram which is named after him.
• Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava kingdom during his reign in about 640 AD and he describes the people living in his kingdom as happy.
• He also says there was an abundance of agricultural products.
• Great Nayannar saints like Appar, Tirugnanasambandar and Siruthondar lived during his reign.
• He was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman II who ruled from 668 to 670 AD.

Later rulers

• After Mahendravarman II, his son Parameswaravarman became the king.
• During his rule, Kanchipuram was occupied by the Chalukyas.
• Nripatunga was an important king who defeated a Pandya king.
• There were a few other rulers. The last ruler of the Pallava dynasty was Aparajitavarman who was killed in battle with the Cholas.

Struggle Between The Pallavas and the Chalukyas

• The main cause of the struggle between Pallavas and Chalukyas was the supremacy.
• The Pandyas, who were in control of Madurai and Tinnevelly district of Tamil Nadu, joined this conflict as a poor third.
• Although both the Pallavas and the Chalukyas supported Brahmanism, performed Vedic sacrifices and made grants to the Brahmanas, the two quarreled with each-other for prestige and territorial resources.
• Both tried to establish supremacy over the land lying between the Krishna and the Tungabhadra. 
• The first important event in this long struggle took place in the reign of Pulakeshin-II (609-642), the most prominent Chalukya king.
• He overthrew the Kadamba capital at Banavasi and compelled the Ganges of Mysore to accept his suzerainty.
• He also defeated Harsha’s army on the Narmada and checked his march towards the Deccan.
• In his conflict with the Pallavas, he almost reached the Pallava capital, but the Pallavas purchased peace by ceding their northern-provinces to Pulakeshin II.
• Pulakeshin’s second invasion of the Pallava territory ended in failure. The Pallava king Narasimhavarman (A.D. 630-668) occupied the Chalukya capital at Vatapi in about A.D. 642, when Pulakeshin II was probably killed in fight against the Pallavas.
• Narsimhavarman adopted the title of Vatapikonda or the conqueror of Vatapi.
• He is also said to have defeated the Cholas, the Cheras, the Pandyas and the Kalabhras.
• By the end of the seventh century, the conflict was subsided but it was again resumed in the first half of the eighth century A.D.
• The Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (A.D. 733-745) is said to have overrun Kanchi three times. In 740 A.D., he completely overthrow the Pallavas.
• His victory ended the Pallava supremacy in the far south although the ruling house continued for more than a century afterwards.
• However, the Chalukyas could not enjoy the fruits of their victory over the Pallavas for long for their own hegemony was brought to an end in A.D. 757 by the Rashtrakutas.

Pallava Society and Culture
Society & Culture

• The Pallava society was based on Aryan culture.
• Brahmins were greatly patronised by the kings and they received land and villages. This was called Brahmadeya. The Brahmin status greatly enhanced during this reign. The caste system became rigid.
• The Pallava kings were orthodox Hindus and worshipped Shiva and Vishnu. They were tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism too although both these faiths lost their relevance and popularity.
• Kanchipuram was a great centre of learning. The University of Kanchi played a great part in the propagation of Aryan culture in the South. It can be said that the aryanisation of southern India was completed during the Pallava reign.
• Vatsyayana who wrote Nyaya Bhashya was a teacher at Kanchi University (Ghatika).
• Bharavi and Dandin lived in Pallava courts. Bharavi wrote Kiratarjuneeyam. Dandin composed Dashakumaracharita. Both were masterpieces.
• The Vaishnava and Saiva literature flourished during this period.
• Sanskrit was the chief language among the royals and the scholars.
• Some of the inscriptions are in a mix of Tamil and Sanskrit.
• Vedic traditions were superimposed on the local ones.
• Many Tamil saints belonging to either Saivite (Nayannars) or the Vaishnavaite (Alwars) sects lived during the 6th and 7th centuries. Saivite saints: Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkawasagar. Vaishnava saint: Andal (the only female Alwar saint).These saints composed hymns in Tamil.
• Dancers were being maintained by all big temples.

There were three types of places during this time:
1. Ur: were peasants lived and was headed by a headman who collected and paid the taxes.
2. Sabha: land granted to Brahmins and was also called Agrahara villages. These were tax-free.
3. Nagaram: were merchants and traders resided.

• During the Pallava period, Hindu culture spread to many places in Southeast Asia as well. Pallava influence is evident from the ancient architecture seen in Cambodia and Java.

Architecture
The beautiful and grand Pallava style of architecture can be divided into four phases or styles:
1. Mahendra style (600-625 AD)
2. Mammala style (625-674 AD)
3. Rajasimha and Nadivarman style (674-800 AD)
4. Aparajita style (early 9th century)

• The Pallava era witnesses a transition from rock cut to free-standing temples.
• Mahendravarman was a pioneer in rock-cut architecture. Mandagapattu rock-cut temple was the first rock-cut temple built by him.
• Narasimhaverman II also known as Rajasimha built the Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple during the late 7th century AD.
• The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram was also built by Narasimhaverman II. It is the oldest structural temple in South India. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1984. It is also called Seven Pagodas.
• The Vaikuntha Perumal at Kanchipuram was built by Nandivarman II.
• The Dravidian style of architecture begins with the Pallava reign.