International conventions on tackling climate change:

Kyoto Protocol

• The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997.
• India ratified Kyoto Protocol in 2002.
• The Kyoto Protocol came into force in February 2005.
• There are currently 192 Parties.
• USA never ratified Kyoto Protocol.
• Canada withdrew in 2012.
• Goal: Fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to “a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.”
• Kyoto protocol aimed to cut emissions of greenhouse gases across the developed world by about 5 per cent by 2012 compared with 1990 levels.
• The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.
• Kyoto Protocol is the only global treaty with binding limits on GHG emissions.

What is Common but Differentiated Responsibilities – Kyoto Protocol?

• It puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

CBDR divides countries into two categories.

1. Historically biggest polluting developed countries like US, UK, France, Japan, Russia etc. (they are polluting the earth since Industrial Revolution).
2. Recently polluting developing countries like China, India, Brazil, etc. (polluting since 1950s).

• “Common” Every country (both developing and developed) must take part in the fight against climate change.
• “But differentiated responsibilities” Historically biggest polluters should do more compared to the recent polluters, i.e., responsibilities proportional to pollution caused.
• Thus, under CBDR, developed countries like US, UK, Russia etc. must contribute more to reduce GHGs.
• They must accept to certain binding limits on GHG emissions.
• They must contribute funds towards reducing GHG emissions in developing and least developed countries.
• On the other hand, developing and least developed countries should do everything possible to cut down their GHG emissions. But nothing is binding on them, and every initiative is voluntary.

Classification of Parties and their commitments – Kyoto Protocol

Annex I	Developed countries [US, UK, Russia etc.] + Economies in transition (EIT)[Ukraine, Turkey, some eastern European countries etc.]
Annex II	Developed countries (Annex II is a subset of Annex I). Required to provide financial and technical support to the EITs and developing countries to assist them in reducing their greenhouse gas emissions.
Annex B	Annex I Parties with first or second-round Kyoto greenhouse gas emissions targets. The first-round targets apply over the years 2008–2012 and the second-round Kyoto targets, which apply from 2013–2020. Compulsory binding targets to reduce GHG emissions.
Non-Annex I	Parties to the UNFCCC not listed in Annex I of the Convention (mostly low-income developing countries). No binding targets to reduce GHG emissions.
LDCs	Least-developed countries No binding targets to reduce GHG emissions.

What is commitment period – Kyoto Protocol?

• Under Kyoto Protocol, there are two commitment periods:

1. 2008 – 2012 and
2. 2013 – 2020.

• The second commitment period was agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol.
• Each commitment period has its own binding targets set for developed countries to reduce their GHG emissions.
• Nations that miss their Kyoto target in 2012 will incur a penalty of an additional third added to whatever cut they agree under a new treaty in Copenhagen.
• During first commitment period (2008-12), more than 35 countries had binding targets.
• Canada withdrew in 2012 after the first commitment period.
• Japan, New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto’s first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period.
• As of January 2019, 124 states have accepted the Doha Amendment, while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states.
• Thus, the second commitment period is a failure.
• Negotiations were held in Lima in 2014 to agree on a post-Kyoto legal framework that would obligate all major polluters to pay for CO₂ emissions.
• China, India, and the United States (three big villains) have all signalled that they will not ratify any treaty that will commit them legally to reduce CO₂ emissions.

Flexible Market Mechanisms – Kyoto Protocol

• Countries bound to Kyoto targets have to meet them largely through domestic action — that is, to reduce their emissions onshore.
• But they can meet part of their targets through three “market-based mechanisms”.

The Kyoto Flexible Market Protocol mechanisms include:

1. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
2. Emission Trading
3. Joint Implementation (JI)

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) – Kyoto Protocol

• CDM allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries.
• Hypothetical E.g. of CDM: Australia takes up or finances some environment benefitting project in India (solar power projects, wind power projects, afforestation etc.) and earns some carbon credits (certified emission reduction credits). Now it shows these earned carbon credits to the world and tells them how it is working towards meeting its Kyoto targets.
• Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO₂, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.
• In simple terms: Developed countries emit more and lose carbon credits. They provide financial assistance to developing and least developed countries to create clean energy (solar, wind energy etc.) and gain some carbon credits thereby meeting their Kyoto Quota (Kyoto units) of emissions without violations.
• Suppose a developed country has a Kyoto Quota of 100 Carbon Credits, it can emit 100 tonnes of CO₂.
• Due to negligence it emits 110 tonnes of CO₂, i.e. 10 carbon credits are lost (Kyoto Quota violation).
• Now the country has to make up for its lost carbon credits to avoid penalty.
• So, it invests some money (equal to 10 carbon credits) in developing and LDCs to build clean energy infrastructure like solar plants, wind farms etc. and will make up for its 10 lost carbon credits and avoid penalty.

Carbon Credits Trading [Carbon Trading] – Kyoto Protocol

Carbon credit – Kyoto Protocol A carbon credit (often called a carbon offset) is a tradable certificate or permit. One carbon credit is equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide. Carbon credits are a part of attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of GHGs. Carbon credits or carbon offsets can be acquired through afforestation, renewable energy, CO2 sequestration, methane capture, buying from an exchange (carbon credits trading) etc..

• Carbon trading is the name given to the exchange of emission permits.
• This exchange may take place within the economy or may take the form of international transaction.
• Under Carbon Credits Trading mechanism countries that emit more carbon than the quota allotted to them buy carbon credits from those that emit less.
• In Carbon trading, one credit gives the country or a company right to emit one tonne of CO₂.
• A developing nation such as India, turns out to be a seller of such credits, which eventually provides them with monetary gains.
• Carbon credits are traded at various exchanges across the world.
• Multi-Commodity Exchange of India (MCX) launched futures trading in carbon credits in 2009.

Types of Carbon trading

• Emission trading and
• Offset trading.

Emission trading/’cap-and-trade’

• Emissions trading allows countries to sell unused emission units to countries that have exceeded their targets.
• Carbon is tracked and traded like any other commodity in a “carbon market.”

Other trading units in the carbon market:

• A removal unit (RMU) by reforestation.
• An emission reduction unit (ERU) generated by a joint implementation project.
• A certified emission reduction (CER) generated from a clean development mechanism project activity.

Offset Trading/Carbon Project/’baseline-and credit’ trading

• Another variant of carbon credit is to be earned by a country by investing some amount of money in such projects, known as carbon projects, which will emit lesser amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.
• For example, suppose a thermal plant of 800 megawatt capacity emit 400 carbon-equivalent in the atmosphere. Now a country builds up an 800 megawatt wind energy plant which does not generate any amount of emission as an alternative of the thermal plant. Then by investing in this project the country will earn 400 carbon-equivalent.
• Offset Trading is a variant of Emission Trading or Carbon Trading.

Carbon tax (not related to Kyoto Protocol) It is a tax on all fossil fuels in proportion to carbon dioxide emissions. Proposed in may developed and developing countries. The proposal faced political resistance (politician – corporate nexus, people feared more burden). India has a carbon tax of sorts. Budget of 2010-11 introduced a cess of Rs. 50 per tonne of both domestically produced and imported coal. Later it was increased to Rs. 100. With the introduction of the Goods and Service Tax (GST), the Clean Energy Cess was abolished in 2017. A new cess on coal production, called the GST Compensation Cess of Rs. 400 per tonneis put in place. This cess is used to raise revenues for the National Clean Energy Fund.

Non-Compliance of Kyoto And Penalties

• If a country does not meet the requirements for measurements and reporting, the country loses the privilege of gaining credit through joint implementation projects.
• If a country goes above its emissions cap and does not try to make up the difference through any of the mechanisms available, then said country must make up the difference plus an additional thirty percent during the next period.
• The country could also be banned from participating in the ‘cap and trade’ program.

Joint Implementation (JI) – Kyoto Protocol

• The mechanism known as “joint implementation,” allows a country with an emission reduction commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission-reduction project in another Annex B Party, each equivalent to one tonne of CO₂, which can be counted towards meeting its Kyoto target.
• Joint implementation offers Parties a flexible and cost-efficient means of fulfilling a part of their Kyoto commitments, while the host Party benefits from foreign investment and technology transfer.

Q. Regarding “carbon credits”, which one of the following statements is not correct?

1. The carbon credit system was ratified in conjunction with the Kyoto Protocol.
2. Carbon credits are awarded to countries or groups that have reduced greenhouse gases below their emission quota.
3. The goal of the carbon credit system is to limit the increase of carbon emission quota.
4. Carbon credits are traded at a price fixed from time to time by the United Nations Environment Programme.

• Answer d) Carbon credit prices are traded on an exchange. So, their prices are never fixed.

Benefits of Flexible Market Mechanisms

• Stimulating green investment in developing countries.
• Including the private sector in this endeavour to cut and hold steady GHG emissions at a safe level.
• It also makes “leap-frogging” –– possibility to skip older, dirtier technology for newer, cleaner infrastructure and systems, with obvious longer-term benefits.
• Strengthen the Protocol’s environmental integrity, support the carbon market’s credibility and ensures transparency of accounting by Parties.

Criticism of Kyoto Protocol:

• Under Kyoto Protocol, Annex 1 countries can meet their targets by cutting emissions or buying unused allowances (carbon credits, carbon trading) from other countries. This kind of approach ignores long term social and economic costs. It is like committing only half of what one needs to commit.
• Kyoto Protocol is based on the “common but differentiated responsibility” approach to global warming. Under CBDR, many countries were allowed to increase pollution.
• It excluded most polluting countries like China and India, which have since become the world’s largest and fourth largest polluters.

Important UNFCCC Summits Post Kyoto

• After the Kyoto Protocol, parties to the Convention have agreed to further commitments.
• CMP: Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
• COP11 / CMP 1 was held in Montreal, Canada in 2005 (Kyoto Protocol was ratified in 2005).

Bali (Indonesia) Climate Change Conference 2007 (COP 13; CMP 3)

COP 13: It is the13th session of the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC

CMP 3: It is the 3rd session of the COP serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.

• Governments adopted the Bali Road Map.

Bali Road Map included:

• Reaching an agreed outcome and adopting a decision at COP15 in Copenhagen.
• The review of the financial mechanism, going beyond the existingGlobal Environmental Facility.

Poznan (Poland) Climate Change Conference 2008 (COP 14; CMP 4)

• It launched the Adaptation Fund under the Kyoto Protocol.
• The Fund is financed in part by government and private donors, and also from a 2% share of proceeds of Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) issued under Clean Development Mechanism projects.

Copenhagen (Denmark) Climate Change Conference 2009 (COP 15; CMP 5)

• The Copenhagen Accord included the goal of limiting the maximum global average temperature increase to no more than 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, subject to a review in 2015.
• Developed countries promised to provide US$30 billion for the period 2010-2012, and to mobilize long-term finance of a further US$100 billion a year by 2020 from a variety of sources.

Cancún (Mexico) Climate Change Conference 2010 (COP 16; CMP 6)

• Parties agreed to commit to a maximum temperature, rise of 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, and to consider lowering that maximum to 1.5 degrees in the near future.
• Parties agreed to establish a Green Climate Fund to provide financing to projects, programmes, policies and other activities in developing countries via thematic funding windows.
• Governments also agreed to include carbon capture and storage (CCS) in the projects under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), subject to technical and safety standards.

Durban (Denmark) Climate Change Conference 2011 (COP 17; CMP 7)

• The outcomes included a decision by Parties to adopt a universal legal agreement on climate change as soon as possible, and no later than 2015.
• Second phase of Kyoto Protocol was secured.
• Approved the Governing Instrument for the GCF.

REDD+ (Warsaw)

COP 19, held in November 2013 in Warsaw, Poland, adopted the 7 decisions of the Warsaw Framework for REDD-plus.

• REDD+: Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation PLUS.
• Under REDD+: Money comes from developed countries =>green climate fund=>developing countries=>national agencies.
• It is a result based understanding/framework. Meaning, Developing country will have to prove the ‘result’ they have fought deforestation without harming local communities or biological diversity. Only then, they’ll get the Money.
• REDD+ negotiations have been ongoing since 2005, finally @Warsaw talks 2013, the participating nations agreed for REDD+ mechanism.

REDD vs REDD+: What’s the difference?
REDD	REDD+
Only UN	UN’s REDD PLUS following Forest Carbon Partnership Facility: which is is a global partnership of governments, businesses, civil society, and Indigenous Peoples. World bank’s Forest Investment Program (FIP)
Just deforestation	Deforestation PLUS following sustainable management of forests Increasing forest carbon stocks Forest conservation

India REDD+(2018)

REDD+ Strategy

1. In simple terms, REDD+ means “Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation”, conservation of forest carbon stocks, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries.
2. REDD+ aims to achieve climate change mitigation by incentivizing forest conservation.
3. The strategy seeks to address drivers of deforestation and forest degradation and also developing a roadmap for enhancement of forest carbon stocks and achieving sustainable management of forests through REDD+ actions.
4. The National REDD+ Strategy will soon be communicated to the UNFCCC.

Involving Tribal Cooperation

1. MoEFCC has emphasized that the cooperation and involvement of the tribals, other forest dwelling people and the society as a whole, is crucial for the implementation of the REDD+ strategy.
2. India’s National REDD+ strategy is one of the tools to achieve   India’s commitment to Paris Agreement.
3. The REDD+ strategy will help the country to fulfill its NDC commitments and will also contribute to the livelihood of the forest dependent population.

Governing under REDD+

1. A National Governing Council of REDD+ chaired by the Union Environment Minister at  the national level and two technical committees are being established for supporting the REDD+ implementation in the country.
2. The REDD+ actions at the State level will be coordinated by the committee headed by the Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (PCCF) & Head of Forest Force (HOFF) of the States.
3. Paris agreement on climate change also recognizes role of forests in climate change mitigation and calls upon country Parties to take action to implement and support REDD+.

Lima (Peru) Climate Change Conference 2014 (COP 20)

• The overarching goal of the conference is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) to limit the global temperature increase by 2030 to 2 degrees Celsius above 1850 baseline or Pre Industrial era.
• The agreement urged parties to take national pledges by finalizing their Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC) by November 2015 (before Paris Summit).
• No agreement was reached due to lack of consensus between developed and developing countries.

Developed vs. Developing

• Wealthy nations like the U.S, EU argued that emissions from developing countries are consistently rising and they need to commit to more serious emission cuts.
• But India accused them of watering down the CDR principle envisaged in earlier.
• India stuck to its conventional position that the developed countries should shoulder a bigger burden as they are responsible for the problem in the first place.
• India confirmed that poverty alleviation would continue to be its primary concern and hence it will not compromise with its share of carbon credits.

India’s position

• China agreed a deal in 2014 under which its emissions would peak by 2030 (after 2030, it will start reducing its carbon footprint).
• India, the world’s third largest carbon emitter, is under pressure to make commitments like China.
• India says carbon emissions will grow as it strives to beat poverty.
• India wants to use its carbon credits to alleviate poverty and is not ready to accept anything other than ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’.

What India must do other than blaming developed nations

• India must demonstrate concerns about climate change issues (2015 Chennai floods, 2013 Uttarakhand floods, 2018 Kerala floods are all the effects of climate change).
• Emissions in India are rising dangerously, and the environmental costs will offset all its economic progress.
• India had to make a pragmatically determined national pledge before Paris Summit (India announced its INDC in October 2015).

Paris Climate Change Conference 2015 (COP 21)

• No agreement was reached in Lima.
• All agreements and decisions were reserved for Paris Summit 2015.
• Paris Summit is one of the most important environmental conference because of the INDC commitments made by major polluters.
• The conference objective is to achieve a legally binding and universal agreement on climate to be signed in 2015 and implemented by 2020.
• Prior to the conference, 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions (so-called Intended Nationally Determined Contributions, INDCs).
• However, no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement – as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol.
• There will be neither a mechanism to force a country to set a target by a specific date nor enforcement measures if a set target is not met.

Paris Agreement

• The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement, a global agreement on the reduction of climate change.
• It entered into force in November 2016 after (ratification by 55 countries that account for at least 55% of global emissions) had been met.
• Signatories: 195 as of 2019; 180+ countries have ratified; India signed and ratified in 2016.

Ratification Once the treaty has been signed, each state will deal with it according to its own national procedures. After approval has been granted under a state’s own internal procedures, it will notify the other parties that they consent to be bound by the treaty. This is called ratification.

• The expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to “well below 2 °C” Celsius compared to pre-industrial levels.
• The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century.
• In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement, the parties will also “pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C.”
• The 1.5 °C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050, according to some scientists.
• The developed countries reaffirmed the commitment to mobilize $100 billion a year in climate finance by 2020 and agreed to continue mobilizing finance at the level of $100 billion a year until 2025.
• In 2017, United States announced that the U.S. would cease all participation in the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change mitigation.
• In accordance with Article 28 of the Paris Agreement, the earliest possible effective withdrawal date by the United States cannot be before November 2020. Thus, The U.S. will remain a signatory till November 2020.

Climate Neutral Now

• The UNFCCC secretariat launched its Climate Neutral Now initiative in 2015.
• The following year, the secretariat launched a new pillar under its Momentum for Change initiative focused on Climate Neutral Now.
• Climate Neutral Now is aiming at encouraging and supporting all levels of society to take climate action to achieve a climate neutral world by mid-century, as enshrined in the Paris Agreement.
• Climate neutrality is a three step process, which requires individuals, companies and governments to:

1. Measure their climate footprint;
2. Reduce their emissions as much as possible;
3. Offset what they cannot reduce with UN certified emission reductions.

Q. Momentum for Change: Climate Neutral Now” is an initiative launched by (2018)

1. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
2. The UNEP Secretariat
3. The UNFCCC Secretariat
4. The World Meteorological Organisation

China-U.S. deal on emission cuts

• Prior to the summit, China and the United States have agreed on a timetable to limit emission of GHGs.
• US agreed to reduce by 2025 its emission of greenhouse gases by 26 per cent to 28 per cent below its 2005 level.
• China stated its intent to peak emissions of carbon dioxide in 2030, if not earlier (from 2030 it will start reducing its emissions).
• It also agreed to raise the share of non-fossil fuels to 20 per cent in the next 16 years.
• India’s per capita emissions are estimated at one-tenth of the United States and one-fourth of China.
• China – US deal imposed a fresh pressure on India to make a voluntary commitment.
• India announced its INDCs in the end of 2015.

What is an INDC?

• During Warsaw Summit 2013 (COP 19), countries agreed to publicly outline what actions they intend to take under a global agreement well before the Paris Summit 2015.
• These country commitments are known as Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs).

The main points of contention on INDCs

Inclusion of Adaptation, finance and transfer of technology

• Developed countries are of the view that only actions that help in reducing greenhouse gas emissions should be counted as ‘contributions’ in INDCs.
• Almost every developing country, including India, however, wants adaptation measures also to be counted.
• Developing countries also want efforts by developed ones on providing money or transferring technology to poorer nations to be included in INDCs.
• This will help in holding the rich countries (biggest culprits that contributed to the increase of GHG emissions since Industrial Revolution) accountable to their promises on ensuring financial and technology flows.

Commitment Period

• India, European Union, China etc. are in favour of a 10-year commitment period.
• The United States, however, wants five-year commitment period so that countries can make quicker reviews.

Ex-post Review

• Since the INDCs are ‘nationally-determined’ and voluntary, the level of ambition in making ‘contributions’ is likely to be low.
• Some countries want an assessment of each country’s INDC to see whether these are in line with the global 2 degree target.
• India and the United States strongly resent any such provision, saying such an exercise will negate the ‘nationally-determined’ nature of the ‘contributions’.

 

India’s INDC objectives

• Announced in October 2015 (Lima summit urged every country to announce its INDCs by Nov 2015)
• Reduce emission intensity by 33 to 35 per cent by 2030 compared to 2005 levels.

How?

• Introduce new, more efficient and cleaner technologies in thermal power generation.
• Reducing emissions from transportation sector.
• Promote energy efficiency, mainly in industry, transportation, buildings and appliances
• Develop climate resilient infrastructure.
• Pursue Zero Effect, Zero Defect policy under Make in India programme.
• Produce 40 per cent of electricity from non-fossil fuel based energy resources by 2030, if international community helps with technology transfer and low cost finance.

How?

• Install 175 GW of solar, wind and biomass electricity by 2022, and scale up further in following years.
• Aggressively pursue development of hydropower.
• Achieve the target of 63 GW of installed nuclear power capacity by 2032.
• Create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnesof carbon dioxide equivalent by 2030 through additional forest and tree cover.

• Full implementation of Green India Mission and other programmes of afforestation.
• Develop 1,40,000 km long tree line on both sides of national highways.
• Sustainable development.
• Develop robust adaptation strategies for agriculture, water and health sectors.

• Redesign National Water Mission and National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture.
• Active implementation of ongoing programmes like National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture, setting up of 100 mobile soil-testing laboratories, distribution of soil health cards to farmers.
• Additional impetus on watershed development through Neeranchal scheme.
• Effective implementation of National Mission on Clean Ganga.
• Early formulation and implementation of National Health Mission.
• Complete Integrated Coastal Zone Management plan. Mapping and demarcation of coastal hazard lines.

Money required to meet India’s INDC

• At least USD 2.5 trillion required between 2015 and 2030 to implement all planned actions.
• Cess on coal is being used for funding clean energy projects through National Adaptation Fund.
• Tax free infrastructure bonds were introduced for funding renewable energy projects.

Tax free infrastructure bonds A bond is an instrument to borrow money. Infrastructure bonds are borrowings to be invested in government funded infrastructure projects within a country. They are issued by governments or government authorized Infrastructure companies or Non-Banking Financial Companies. Investments up to Rs. 20000 are eligible for income tax deduction under Section 80 CCF of the Income Tax Act.

National Adaptation Fund on Climate Change (NAFCC)

• Budget 2015 introduced “National Adaptation Fund” for climate change.
• As an initial sum, an amount of Rs 100 crore will be transferred to the Fund.
• Budget provision for the year 2015-16 and 2016-17 is Rs.350 crores.
• Money obtained from coal cess goes into NAFCC.
• Objective: Assist States and Union Territories that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change in meeting the cost of adaptation.
• The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) has been appointed as National Implementing Entity (NIE) responsible for implementation of adaptation projects under the (NAFCC).

Post Paris Summit

Marrakech (Morocco) Climate Change Conference 2016 (COP22; CMP12; CMA1)

• CMA1 the first meeting of the parties for the Paris Agreement.
• The purpose of the conference was to discuss and implement plans about combatting climate change and to “[demonstrate] to the world that the implementation of the Paris Agreement is underway”.
• COP22 was called as “Action COP” or “Agriculture COP”.
• Adaptation of African Agriculture (AAA) was launched at COP 22.
• AAA is promoted by FAO along with various governments, especially African countries.

International Solar Alliance

• The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is an alliance was initiated by India.
• It was initiated at the India Africa Summit, and a meeting of member countries ahead of the Paris Summit.
• The framework agreement opened for signatures in Marrakech in 2016, and 122 countries have joined.
• Most of the 122 countries are sunshine countries, which lie either completely or partly between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
• ISA is now extended to all members of UN and is now a treaty-based inter-governmental organization.
• Countries that do not fall within the Tropics can join the alliance with the exception of voting rights.
• The primary objective of the alliance is to work for efficient exploitation of solar energy to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
• Headquarters: Gurugram, Haryana, India.

Bonn (Germany) Climate Change Conference 2017 (COP 23; CMP 13; CMA 1-2)

• At COP 23 nations of the world met to advance the aims and ambitions of the Paris Agreement and achieve progress on its implementation guidelines.
• Parties will need to finalise the Implementation Guidelines at COP24.

Katowice (Poland) Climate Change Conference 2018 (COP 24; CMP 14; CMA 1-3)

• The conference agreed on rules to implement the Paris Agreement, which will come into force in 2020, that is to say the rulebook on how governments will measure, and report on their emissions-cutting efforts

Important Outcome of Summit

• Paris Rulebook: The COP-24 finalized a “rulebook” to operationalise 2015 Paris Agreement.
• The rulebook set out how countries will provide information about their Nationally Determined Contributions describing their domestic climate actions, mitigation and adaptation measures.
• The rulebook covers areas such as how countries should report their greenhouse gas emissions, contributions to climate finance, what rules should apply to voluntary market mechanisms, such as carbon trading etc.
• The rulebook has addressed some concerns about the opaqueness of climate financing, such as, developed nations will have to provide hard data on the sources of future financial flows.
  • Climate finance refers to local, national or transnational financing—drawn from public, private and alternative sources of financing.
  • It seeks to support mitigation and adaptation actions that will address climate change.
  • The UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement call for financial assistance from developed countries to developing and less developed countries in accordance with the principle of “common but differentiated responsibility and respective capabilities”.
  • Under Paris Agreement, developed countries have committed to provide $100 billion annually from 2020 for dealing with climate change.
• The rulebook describes which loans, concessions and grants can be classified as climate finance, how they should be accounted for, and the kind of information about them needed to be submitted.
• The modalities and procedures for Monitoring and Progress Report System proposal (MPR) to (INDC) were also discussed.

Issues in Conference

• Disagreement on Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Report: The 1.5°C Report, produced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in October 2018, was not acknowledged as an evidence-based cause for alarm by the U.S., Saudi Arabia, and Russia.
• No ambitious action promised: The absence of any indication towards increasing “ambition” of climate actions, so as to rein in temperature rise at 1.5°c at a faster pace, was one major disappointment of the Katowice conference.
• Issue of Equity: Provisions did not reflect the principles of common but differentiated responsibilities. Poorer nations vulnerable to climate change also wanted more clarity on how an already agreed $100 billion a year of climate finance by 2020 will be provided.
  • The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities holds that although all countries are responsible for the development of global society, each has a different set of capabilities that they can contribute to this project.
  • It recognizes the historical correlation between higher levels of development and a greater contribution to the degradation of global environmental resources by developed countries and enables the sharing of responsibility accordingly.
• Climate Finance: No roadmap adopted for the mobilisation of funds till 2020, no specific process has been initiated for fixing the long-term goals of finance by 2025, which is a legal mandate of the Paris Agreement.
  • No clear guarantees could be obtained from the developed countries to even report their financial commitments through an international process.
  • The language under the provision related to climate financing is ambiguous allowing countries to report the value of loans (which are to be repaid to lenders) as climate finance, rather than only the grant portion of the total.
• Market Mechanism: The conference could not reach a consensus on voluntary market mechanisms. Article 6 of the Paris Agreement talks about setting up a market mechanism for trading of carbon emissions. An emissions trading system already exists under the Kyoto Protocol, though it has become ineffective over the last few years and is meant to end with the end of Kyoto Protocol in 2020.
  • Market-based mechanisms provide flexible instruments reducing the costs of meeting emissions targets. Emissions trading systems, Joint Implementation (JI) mechanism and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) established under the Kyoto Protocol are market-based mechanisms.
  • CDM allows a developed country with an emission-reduction commitment under the Kyoto Protocol to implement an emission-reduction project in any of those developing countries Certified Emission Reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2.
  • The countries which are unable to reduce their emissions in their business in a cost-effective manner in their country, they can invest in clean projects in developing countries. (Joint Implementation).
• Carbon Credits: Developing countries like China, India, and Brazil argued that their accumulated unused carbon credits should be considered valid in the new market mechanism.
  • In the recent years, as several countries quit Kyoto Protocol, and no country was feeling compelled to meet its 2020 emission reduction targets, there has been virtually no demand for carbon credits. As a result, developing countries like China, India and Brazil have accumulated huge amounts of unused carbon credits.
  • The developed countries questioned the authenticity of the unused carbon credits, pointing to weak verification mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol. The discussion over carbon markets is deferred to the next year.

Carbon Credit

A carbon credit is a permit or certificate allowing the holder to emit carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases. Carbon trading involves trading of carbon one of the market-based mechanisms set up under Kyoto Protocol.

India’s Stand at the conference

• India reaffirmed its INDCs commitments to meeting the goals under the 2015 Paris Agreement.
• India argued that delicate balance reached between developed and developing countries must be retained, and the principles such as equity, climate justice and Common but Differentiated Responsibility and Respective Capabilities must be given its due.
• India expressed strong reservation over the lack of equity in the global stock-take i.e. taking stock of collective progress toward achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement in the rule book of the agreement.
• It sought a robust transparency regime for countries to disclose their emissions.

COP 25 Ends Without Concrete Outcome

The 25^th edition of the Conference of the Parties (COP25) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) ended without any outcome on the creation of a system of credits for reduction of emissions for the second year in a row.

• Earlier, COP24 at Katowice (Poland) 2019 also couldn’t decide on issues like the creation of new carbon markets, emission reduction targets, etc.
• This was the longest climate COP meeting ever in 25 nearly annual editions.

Key Points

• "Chile-Madrid Time for Action" declaration:
  • The summit passed the declaration calling on countries to improve their current pledges to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
  • It also endorsed to help poor countries that are suffering the effects of climate change, although any new funds were not allocated for the purpose.
  • It called on the “urgent need” to cut planet-heating greenhouse gases in line with the goals of the 2015 Paris climate change accord.
    • The Paris Accord established the common goal of avoiding a temperature increase of more than 1.5 degrees Celsius by the end of the century.
    • So far, the world is on course for a 3 to 4 degree Celsius rise, with potentially dramatic consequences for many countries, including rising sea levels and fiercer storms.
• Disagreements:
  • The Summit couldn’t reach a final agreement on Carbon markets.
    • Carbon markets allow for buying and selling of carbon emissions with the objective of reducing global emissions.
  • On the definition and composition of Climate finances.
    • Climate finances refer to local, national or transnational financing—drawn from public, private and alternative sources of financing to support mitigation and adaptation actions that will address climate change.
  • The voluntary commitments to be made by nations towards emission reductions.
  • The key polluting countries responsible for 80% of the world’s emissions did not make any substantial announcement while smaller countries announced their targets to reduce emissions in the coming years.
    • It backtracks on a principle of the 1992 convention of the Earth Summit (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) that states that rich countries have the biggest historical responsibility for emissions and should pay to help the poor to fix the problem.
• The next Climate Summit will be held in Glasgow (Scotland) in 2020 which will decide about the liability for damages caused by rising temperatures.

 

UNCCD

·  It is a legally binding convention linking development and environment to sustainable land management.

·  The UNCCD addresses particularly the arid, semi-arid & dry sub-humid areas, called drylands, where some of the most vulnerable ecosystems and peoples are found.

·  The convention was drafted and opened for signing in 1994. It became effective in 1996 after receiving 50 ratifications.

·  The convention obliges national governments to take measures to tackle the issue of desertification.

·  The convention’s 2018 – 2030 Strategic Framework is a comprehensive international commitment to attain Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) aiming at:

• The restoration of productivity of degraded land.
• Enhancing the livelihoods of people dependent on them.
• Mitigating the impact of droughts on vulnerable populations.

Recent

The 14^th edition of the Conference of Parties (COP-14) to the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) ended on 13^th September 2019.

• Held in Greater Noida, this was the first time that India hosted an edition of the UNCCD COP.
• The theme of the Conference was ‘Restore land, Sustain future’.
• India being the global host for COP 14 has taken over the COP Presidency from China for the next two years till 2021.
• India is among the select few countries to have hosted the COP of all three Rio conventions on climate change, biodiversity and land.

Key Takeaways

• Delhi Declaration: Commitment for a range of issues, including gender and health, ecosystem restoration, taking action on climate change, private sector engagement, Peace Forest Initiative and recovery of five million hectares of degraded land in India.
  • The country parties have agreed to make the Sustainable Development Goal target of achieving land degradation neutrality by 2030, a national target for action.
  • Peace Forest Initiative: It is an initiative of South Korea to use ecological restoration as a peace-building process. It aims at addressing the issue of land degradation in conflict-torn border areas and would go a long way in alleviating tensions and building trust between communities living there and between enemy countries in particular.
• Drought Toolbox: It is launched as a one-stop-shop for all actions on drought. It is a sort of knowledge bank which contains tools that strengthen the ability of countries to anticipate and prepare for drought effectively and mitigate their impacts as well as tools that enable communities to anticipate and find the land management tools that help them to build resilience to drought.
• International coalition for action on Sand and Dust storms (SDS): The coalition will develop an SDS source base map with the goal of improving monitoring and response to these storms. SDS affects approximately 77% of UNCCD country Parties or approximately 151 countries.
• Initiative of Sustainability, Stability and Security (3S): Launched by 14 African countries to address migration driven by land degradation. It aims at restoring land and creating green jobs for migrants and vulnerable groups.
• Cooperation From Youth: The global Youth Caucus on Desertification and Land convened its first official gathering in conjunction with the UNCCD COP14 to bring together youth advocates from different parts of the world, to build their capacity, share knowledge, build networks and to engage them meaningfully in the UNCCD processes.

High-Level Segment Meeting of the COP14

• The Prime Minister of India inaugurated and addressed the high-level segment meeting of the COP-14.
  • India seeks to propose initiatives for greater South-South cooperation in addressing issues of climate change, biodiversity and land degradation.
  • India would raise its ambition of the total area that would be restored from its land degradation status, from twenty-one million hectares to twenty-six million hectares between now and 2030.
  • India has proposed to set up a global technical support institute for the member countries of the UNCCD for their capacity building and support regarding the Land Degradation Neutrality Target Setting Program.
  • India called upon the leadership of UNCCD to conceive a global water action agenda which is central to the Land Degradation Neutrality strategy.
  • India advocated on the need to eradicate the menace of single-use plastic.