Measures To Prevent Ozone Depletion at International Level

• 1985 – Vienna Convention
• 1987 – Montreal Protocol
• In this developed countries under took a protocol under which they will phase out their ODSs completely by December 2000 except for those substances which have medical use.
• 1990 – London Protocol under which developed countries agreed to set up a multilateral fund to contribute towards all those efforts taking place in developing countries to curb ODSs.
• Moreover, developing countries were given 10 yrs extra time to phase out ODSs (i.e. 2010).
• 1993 – At Copenhagen an extra 5 yrs period was given to both developed and developing countries to achieve their targets i.e. 2005 for developed and 2015 for developing countries.
• Indian efforts to curb ODSs emission –
• 1992 – GOI signed Montreal Protocol.
• 1998 – MOEF made it mandatory to phase out ODSs from India by 2003. Though halons have already been phased out, the phasing out of CFCs is still in the process.
• Under a GOI’s regulations manufacturing of aerosol products will be prohibited except those which are used in the form of metered dose inhaler.
• ODSs can no longer be used in refrigerators and ACs.
• The regulations banned the manufacturing, consumption, export and import of CFCs to countries that are party to Montreal Protocol.
• Since, 1998 no new investments to expand existing capacity of ODSs.
• September 16, is observed as international ozone day to make its importance and to make people aware about ozone.
• International Environment Agreements to which India is a Signatory
• 1985 The Vienna Convention/Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer.
• 1972 The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and the Agenda 21.
• 1975 The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of flora and Fauna (CITES).  
• Importance (The Ramsar Convention).
• 1992 The Framework Convention on Climate Change.
• 1992 The Convention for Conservation of Biological Resources.

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is one of the flexible arrangements under the Kyoto protocol to the UN framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) supporting the implementation of sustainable and environmentally friendly technologies in developing countries and thereby, facilitating industrialized countries in meeting their emission reduction obligations in a cost-effective manner. The vigorous project development activity in the country, the pro-active stand adopted by the Government has propelled India to become the leading global destination for CDM investments.

As on 14th December 2005, 203 projects facilitating and investment of Rs.14,891 crores had been accorded Host Country Approval by the National CDM Authority.  These projects in energy efficiency, fuel switching, industrial processes, municipal solid waste and renewable energy sectors are expected to generate about 195 million CERs. 

At a conservative price of US $ 10 per CER, it corresponds to an inflow of approximately US $ 1.95 billion in the country by 2012.  As uncertainty about continuance of CDM beyond 2012 has been considerably reduced, it is expected that pace of CDM activities would be further accelerated. 

Carbon Sequestration

Carbon sequestration is a naturally occurring taking up of atmospheric carbon dioxide by forests, oceans and grasslands during photosynthesis. Most terrestrial carbon storage is in tree trunks, branches, foliage, and roots which is often called biomass. Carbon is also deposited directly into soils.

Sustainable forestry practices are known to increase properly managed forests' ability to store or sequester atmospheric carbon while improving soil and water quality and the entire ecosystem. "Planting new trees and improving forest health through thinning and prescribed burning are some of the ways to increase forest carbon in the long run. Harvesting and regenerating forests can also result in net carbon sequestration stored in wood products and new forest growth."

Carbon Sink

Many natural and artificial processes can act as atmospheric sponges that absorb carbon dioxide. Oceans, forests, most plants and algae collect carbon through the photosynthetic process. This capturing of atmospheric carbon by a healthy ecosystem is called a "carbon sink". A carbon sink can be created naturally or using man-made reservoirs that gather and store carbon dioxide for an indefinite period. The collection of carbon sequestration in forests and locked up in wood products helps to offset sources of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Deforestation, forest fires, and fossil fuel emissions are common examples of sources of carbon dioxide and which is suspected as harmful to the environment.

Forest Carbon Offset

A forest carbon offset is a financial tool, used by CO₂ polluters, to offset their emissions of greenhouse gases. One carbon offset (or credit) represents one less metric ton of greenhouse gas that otherwise would have been released into the atmosphere. Commercial operations which are increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide can offset their pollution by buying carbon credits from reputable auditor/broker registries.

By purchasing carbon offsets, companies invest in projects that reduce carbon dioxide emissions in one location to compensate for their own emissions in another.

Ecological Footprint

A measure of how much area of biologically productive land and water an individual, population or activity requires to produce all the resources it consumes and to absorb the waste it generates, using prevailing technology and resource management practices. The Ecological Footprint is usually measured in global hectares. Because trade is global, an individual or country's Footprint includes land or sea from all over the world. Ecological Footprint is often referred to in short form as Footprint. "Ecological Footprint" and "Footprint" are proper nouns and thus should always be capitalized.

National Action Plan on Climate Change

• The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) was released by the Prime Minister on 30th June 2008.It outlines a national strategy that aims to enable the country adapt to climate change and enhances the ecological sustainability of India’s development path. It stresses that maintaining a high growth rate is essential for increasing living standards of the vast majority of people of India and reducing their vulnerability of the impacts of climate change.
• Eight National Missions form the core of the National Action Plan, representing multi-pronged, long term and integrate strategies for achieving key goals in the context of climate change.
• These Missions are:
• National Solar Mission,
• National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency,
• National Mission on Sustainable Habitat,
• National Water Mission,
• National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Eco-system,
• National Mission for a Green India,
• National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture and
• National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change.
• The National Missions are to be institutionalized by the respective Ministries and will be organized through inter-sectoral groups.

ipcc 5TH aSSESSMENT REPORT

• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released its Fifth Assessment Report. Building on past reports, researchers are more certain than ever before that humans are causing climate change and that some of its most dangerous impacts are accelerating faster than expected. The implications of this report are of utmost importance to India and the United States, as well as the rest of the world. 
• The report’s release coincides with Prime Minister Singh’s visit with President Obama, where we hope the leaders engage on the timely issues addressed in the IPCC report. Prior to his visit, NRDC President Frances Beinecke outlined important areas of US-India cooperation in a letter to President Obama, including bolstering renewable energy, energy efficiency and climate adaptation measures. This undeniable evidence of human-caused warming and the catastrophic results of inaction should spur the world’s largest and oldest democracies into seizing this urgent opportunity for cooperation.
• The IPCC report outlines four key messages for scientists and policymakers alike, and a clear message of urgency:

1)   The impacts of climate change are already being felt. As witnessed earlier this year, climate change impacts have devastated India and caused countless deaths through extreme heat and flooding. The report attributes the extremity of those disasters to human-fueled climate change. The report specifically focuses on monsoon changes, highlighting the importance of these dangers for India.

2)   The impacts are already getting worse:The report also addresses the increase in frequency and severity of climate change impacts.  As humans pump more global warming pollution into the atmosphere, temperatures are increasing, sea levels are rising, ice sheets are melting, and climate disasters are becoming more extreme. Ahmedabad’s Heat Action Plan, the first of its kind in Southeast Asia, is one way India is preparing for these climate disasters. NRDC continues to work on the ground with health organizations to develop climate-health preparedness strategies.

3) New evidence that humans are causing climate change :Scientists are more certain than ever that carbon emissions and global warming pollution are driving climate change, primarily from human activities. With over 400 LEED-certified buildings and many states adopting the Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC), India continues to make strides in reducing its carbon emissions.  India can also create a low-carbon development path by shifting to clean energy. Progress made to achieve India’s National Solar Mission is one example of the way forward, though much more needs to be done to continue India’s rapid growth sustainably.

4)   Catastrophic climate change is still avoidable, but bold action is required : The IPCC report points out that there is still a pathway available to limit the projected climate impacts and temperature increases. Avoiding catastrophic climate change and keeping the total temperature rise to 2°C is within our reach, but would require immediate and bold action. India and other G20 countries recently agreed to discuss a phase-down of HFCs, one important step in this direction. The 19th Conference of the Parties, to be held in Poland later this year, presents another platform for India to engage with the international community on these crucial issues.

This last message offers hope despite the dire circumstances – it is not too late to mitigate the impacts of climate change. This fact should inspire our leaders in India and the U.S. during today’s meeting, and future climate negotiations, to agree to bold action now. Humans are the primary cause of climate change, but humans can also steer our planet away from the path towards global disaster. International collaboration and cooperation are key to shifting the trajectory towards a sustainable path. As India continues to progress in its environmental efforts, both India and the U.S. can rise as global leaders to combat climate change.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND INDIA

• India's high vulnerability and exposure to climate change will slow its economic growth, impact health and development, make poverty reduction more difficult and erode food security, a new report by scientists said on Monday.
• The latest report from the U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stresses the risks of global warming and tries to make a stronger case for governments to adopt policy on adaptation and cut greenhouse gas emissions.
• "This is the most extensive piece of science done on climate adaptation up until now," Aromar Revi, one of the lead authors of the report, told a news conference. "The key issue as far as India is concerned is vulnerability and exposure."
• The report predicts a rise in global temperatures of between 0.3 and 4.8 degrees Celsius (0.5 to 8.6 Fahrenheit) and a rise of up to 82 cm (32 inches) in sea levels by the late 21st century due to melting ice and expansion of water as it warms, threatening coastal cities from Shanghai to San Francisco.
• Experts say India is likely to be hit hard by global warming. It is already one of the most disaster-prone nations in the world and many of its 1.2 billion people live in areas vulnerable to hazards such as floods, cyclones and droughts.
• Freak weather patterns will not only affect agricultural output and food security, but will also lead to water shortages and trigger outbreaks of water and mosquito-borne diseases such as diarrhea and malaria in many developing nations.
• "All aspects of food security are potentially affected by climate change including food access, utilisation of land, and price stability," said Revi, adding that studies showed wheat and rice yields were decreasing due to climatic changes.
• The IPCC lead authors said India, like many other developing nations, is likely to suffer losses in all major sectors of the economy including energy, transport, farming and tourism.
• For example, evidence suggests tourists will choose to spend their holidays at higher altitudes due to cooler temperatures or the sea level rises, hitting beach resorts.
• India ranked as the most vulnerable of 51 countries in terms of beach tourism, while Cyprus is the least vulnerable in one study which was examined by the IPCC scientists.
• Extreme weather may also harm infrastructure such as roads, ports and airports, impacting delivery of goods and services.
• "The world has realised mitigation is absolutely critical and probably the most effective form of adaptation but adaptation processes have to be accelerated, especially in ... lower middle-income countries like India.
• Biofuels
• Unlike other renewable energy sources, biomass can be converted directly into liquid fuels, called "biofuels," to help meet transportation fuel needs.
• These fuels are made by a biomass conversion (biomass refers to recently living organisms, most often referring to plants or plant-derived materials). This biomass can be converted to convenient energy containing substances in three different ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion. This biomass conversion can result in fuel in solid, liquid, or gas form. This new biomass can be used for biofuels. Biofuels have increased in popularity because of rising oil prices and the need for energy security.
• biofuels provided 2.7% of the world's fuels for road transport, a contribution largely made up of ethanol and biodiesel. Ethanol is an alcohol and is most commonly made by fermenting any biomass high in carbohydrates through a process similar to beer brewing. Today, ethanol is made from starches and sugars, but scientists are developing technology to allow it to be made from cellulose and hemicellulose, the fibrous material that makes up the bulk of most plant matter.
• Ethanol can also be produced by a process called gasification. Gasification systems use high temperatures and a low-oxygen environment to convert biomass into synthesis gas, a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The synthesis gas, or "syngas," can then be chemically converted into ethanol and other fuels.
• Ethanol is mostly used as blending agent with gasoline to increase octane and cut down carbon monoxide and other smog-causing emissions. Some vehicles, called Flexible Fuel Vehicles, are designed to run on an alternative fuel with much higher ethanol content than regular gasoline.
• Biodiesel is made by combining alcohol (usually methanol) with vegetable oil, animal fat, or recycled cooking grease. Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification.
• Research into the production of liquid transportation fuels from microscopic algae, or microalgae, is reemerging. These microorganisms use the sun's energy to combine carbon dioxide with water to create biomass more efficiently and rapidly than terrestrial plants. Oil-rich microalgae strains are capable of producing the feedstock for a number of transportation fuels—biodiesel, "green" diesel and gasoline, and jet fuel—while mitigating the effects of carbon dioxide released from sources such as power plants.
• Second generation biofuels, also known as advanced biofuels, are fuels that can be manufactured from various types of biomass. Biomass is a wide-ranging term meaning any source of organic carbon that is renewed rapidly as part of the carbon cycle. Biomass is derived from plant materials but can also include animal materials.
• First generation biofuels are made from the sugars and vegetable oils found in arable crops, which can be easily extracted using conventional technology. In comparison, second generation biofuels are made from lingo cellulosic biomass or woody crops, agricultural residues or waste, which makes it harder to extract the required fuel.
• Third generation biofuels are made from algae or other quickly growing biomass sources. Algae can be grown using land and water unsuitable for food production, therefore reducing the strain on already depleted resources.
• Fourth generation biofuels are made from specially engineered plants or biomass that may have higher energy yields or lower barriers to cellulosic breakdown or are able to be grown on non-agricultural land or bodies of water.
• Biogas is methane produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of organic material by anaerobes. It can be produced either from biodegradable waste materials or by the use of energy crops fed into anaerobic digesters to supplement gas yields. The solid byproduct, digestate, can be used as a biofuel or a fertilizer. Biogas can be recovered from mechanical biological treatment waste processing systems.  Landfill gas, a less clean form of biogas, is produced in landfills through naturally occurring anaerobic digestion. If it escapes into the atmosphere, it is a potential greenhouse gas. Farmers can produce biogas from manure from their cattle by using anaerobic digesters
• Syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen and other hydrocarbons, is produced by partial combustion of biomass, that is, combustion with an amount of oxygen that is not sufficient to convert the biomass completely to carbon dioxide and water. Before partial combustion, the biomass is dried, and sometimes pyrolysed. The resulting gas mixture, syngas, is more efficient than direct combustion of the original biofuel; more of the energy contained in the fuel is extracted. Syngas may be burned directly in internal combustion engines, turbines or high-temperature fuel cells. Syngas can be used to produce methanol, DME and hydrogen, or converted to produce a diesel substitute, or a mixture of alcohols that can be blended into gasoline. Gasification normally relies on temperatures greater than 700 C.
• There are various social, economic, environmental and technical issues relating to biofuels production and use, which have been debated in the popular media and scientific journals. These include: the effect of moderating oil prices, the "food vs fuel" debate, poverty reduction potential, carbon emissions levels, sustainable biofuel production, deforestation and soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, and impact on water resources.