Global Warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the earth’s near surface air and oceans. This happens due increase in trapping of terrestrial radiation because of increased concentration of green house gases atmosphere in resulting in increase in average global temperature. These GHGs are CO2, CFC & HCF, methane, oxides of nitrogen, sulphur hexafluoride, water vapor etc. According IPCC’s 4th report all there GHG’s are due to anthropogenic reasons. Due to increased fossil fuels industrialization and deforestation.

Since 1900, the average global temperature has increased by 0.74⁰C. According to the IPCC, if global average temperatures exceed 20⁰C there will be irreversible impacts on water, ecosystems, food, coastal zones and human health.

Mechanism

Earth receives solar radiation which is absorbed by its surface. These radiations are further emitted in atmosphere. If there will be no atmosphere then all these radiations will go out of the earth’s surface and earth will be very cold and inhabitable. With presence of GHG’s these terrestrial radiations are absorbed by them and re-emitted which keeps earth’s atmosphere warm and perfect for living of organisms on its surface. But with increase in concentrations of GHG’s average temperature of earth’s surface is increasing above bearable limit for its different ecosystems. According to IPCC’s reports earth’s average temperature has increased 0.70⁰C more than that before industrialization. And it will increase upto 5⁰C more if present rate of GHG’s emission continued.

Implications of Global Warming

• Melting of Polar ice-caps – Global warming will melt polar ice caps which in result increase sea-level. According to IPCC, sea level will rise anywhere from 8 to 88 cms by the end of this century submerging various low lying areas comprising nearly 1/3 of total landmass. Places like Tahiti,  Soloman Island, Bangladesh, Lakshadweep, Andaman will be under sea water. 
• This polar ice water over oceans will influence ocean currents movements, which will further influence oceanic biomass.
• The tropical areas will bear the massive brunt of these effects of global warming. These areas will experience extreme weather conditions such as hot waves, heavy rainfall, frequent floods, droughts, forest fires and severe cyclonic storms. Such weather conditions will increase insect’s population which will further become cause of vector borne diseases.
• There will be significant alterations in the rainfall and temperature patterns of these regions. The alteration may result in transforming agriculturally productive lands into arid regions and therefore the agricultural practices that have been developed over the ages will be redundant, jeopardizing food security of these areas. This will result in large scale migration of people residing in these areas.

Evidence of Global Warming

• Increase in frequency and Intensity of El-nino and southern oscillations – The El-nino that visited coast of Peru in 1997-98 has been recorded as the most intense El-nino. Earlier observations tell El-nino used to visits in 7 years but now this span has reduced to 5 years.   
• In 1998, large scale destruction of coral life in Gulf of Mannar and Palk strait took place. Coral life is extremely sensitive to minor change in temperature.
• It has been observed Himalayan Glaciers are receding at the rate of 30 to 100 meters per decade.
• Larsen Ice-Shelf – The northern most tip of Antarctica has already developed, huge cracks and large chunk of ice has broken away and drifted in the ocean exposing the underlying sea for the first time in 20,000 years. The exposed sea will absorb more heat than ice and therefore will result in melting more ice. This will initiate a cascading effect with serious further implications.
• The Height of sea level has increased by about 2-3 meters from 1990 levels.

Measures

The Stockholm Conference of 1972

United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972) was the first the international forum where the world community met to consider global environment and development needs. the vast majority of existing MEAs have been adopted since the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, (UNCHE) often referred to as the Stockholm Conference. This Conference acted as an important catalyst event that helped launch future efforts of increasingly intensive international environmental negotiations and agreements. It also gave birth to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), an Environment Fund, Action Plan and the Stockholm Declaration. Adopted by all 113 States present at the Conference, the Declaration was the first universal document of importance on environmental matters.

Its 26 Principles give prominence to a number of concepts that later found their place in various MEAs, namely:

• Interest of present and future generations (Principle 1)
• Renewable versus non-renewable resources (Principles 2 to 5)
• Ecosystems (Principles 2 and 6)
• Serious or irreversible damage (Principle 6)
• Economic and social development (Principle 8)
• Transfer of financial and technological assistance to developing countries as well as the need for capacity building (Principles 9 and 12)
• Integration of development and the environment (Principles 13 and 14)
• Need for international cooperation (Principles 24 and 25)
• The famous Principle 21 of the Stockholm Declaration was later reaffirmed at the 1992 Rio Conference as Principle 2

Principle 21 of the Stockholm Declaration: States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.

Principle 2 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental and developmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. 

Brundtland Report

The United Nations goals of environmental protection, conservation and economic development evolved into the concept of sustainable development through the work of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) and its 1987 report entitled ”Our Common Future” (Brundtland Report). In this report, the concept of sustainable development was defined as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

The Rio Conference of 1992

Rio Declaration highlighted the concept of sustainable development and a number of other important issues and facilitated future environmental negotiations, such as common but differentiated responsibilities, precautionary principle, polluter pays principle, environmental impact assessment, among others. Since the Earth Summit at Rio, international environmental law regime has developed in tandem with domestic law to elaborate and give different aspects of sustainable development a more specific and concrete form.

The Rio Conference was attended by thousands of participants, including 176 States. The important results of the Conference were as follows:

• Adoption of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
• Adoption of Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
• Decision to negotiate the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
• Action plan known as Agenda 21
• Decision to establish the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (UNCSD)
• Rio Declaration on Environment and Development composed of 27 Principles

UNFCCC – United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change.

• During earth summit at Rio in June, 1992 Ist global attempt to control the green house gas emissions was made by undertaking a convention known are UNFCCC. According to this convention, developed countries would reduce the use of their GHGs from 1990 level by the year 2000.
• The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992, entered into force on 21 March 1994 and as of March 2014, UNFCCC has 196 parties. The work under the UNFCCC is facilitated by a secretariat in Bonn, Germany
• Moreover, they will hold annual conferences to arrive at consensus so that legally binding obligations can be imposed on them.
• Under UNFCCC developing countries had no obligations to reduce their GHGs.
• In this process the first conference of parties was held at Berlin but only during the 3rd conference of parties held at Kyoto in December, 1997 the consensus could be achieved.
• COP-3 – It was the first successful conference in imposing legally binding obligations on the part of developed countries. Developed countries are under legal obligations to reduce the level of 6 GHGs by at least 5.2% of their 1990 level by the commitment year of 2008-2012    
• Developed countries can achieve their target either by a significant domestic action or by cooperating with developing countries which had no legal obligations in reducing GHGs but are required to assist developed countries in achieving their targets. To ensure this N-S co-operation, the protocol provides for a clean development mechanism under which a developed country can establish various joint implementation carbon efficient projects in developing countries. The credit of GHG reduction out of these projects will be taken by Developed countries. Moreover developed countries can also purchase certified emission reduction credits from developing countries who have developed clean, cost effective, carbon friendly Technologies.
• Further, it will come into force only 90 days after once it is ratified by that many developed countries which are recognized for making 55% of total GHG emission.
• Once, ratified the protocol on 22 October, 2004 it came into force 16th February, 2005.

Classification of Parties and their commitments

• Annex I: There are 43 Parties to the UNFCCC listed in Annex I of the Convention, including the European Union. These Parties are classified as industrialized (developed) countries and "economies in transition" (EITs). The 14 EITs are the former centrally-planned (Soviet) economies of Russia and Eastern Europe
• Annex II: There are 24 Parties to the UNFCCC listed in Annex II of the Convention, including the European Union. These Parties are made up of members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Annex II Parties are required to provide financial and technical support to the EITs and developing countries to assist them in reducing their greenhouse gas emissions (climate change mitigation) and manage the impacts of climate change (climate change adaptation)
• Annex B: Parties listed in Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol are Annex I Parties with first- or second-round Kyoto greenhouse gas emissions targets. The first-round targets apply over the years 2008–2012. As part of the 2012 Doha climate change talks, an amendment to Annex B was agreed upon containing with a list of Annex I Parties who have second-round Kyoto targets, which apply from 2013–2020. The amendments have not entered into force.
• Least-developed countries (LDCs): 49 Parties are LDCs, and are given special status under the treaty in view of their limited capacity to adapt to the effects of climate change.
• Non-Annex I: Parties to the UNFCCC not listed in Annex I of the Convention are mostly low-income[58] developing countries. Developing countries may volunteer to become Annex I countries when they are sufficiently developed.

Climate Timeline

1988:	United National forms the Intergovernmental Panel on climate Change to study the problem.
1992:	Rio Earth Summit discusses climate change and other pressing environmental concerns.
1997:	Kyoto Protocol signed, binding developed countries to cut their emission of greenhouse gases by at least 5 per cent relative 1990 levels by 2012. Signatories begin the process of ratifying the protocol, which must be accepted by developed nations emitting more than 55 per cent of the world’s greenhouse gases to come into effect.
2000:	George W. Bush as a presidential candidate signals he will take action on climate change if elected
2001:	President Bush casts doubt on the scientific evidence supporting climate change.
2004:	Under pressure from the EU, Russia ratifies the Kyoto protocol. Ratifications have now passed the threshold stipulated in the treaty.
January 1:	2005 EU’s emissions enter into effect.
February 16:	2005 Kyoto protocol enters into effect.
July 6-8 2005:	G8 meeting at Gleneagles reaches agreement on climate change.
November 28- December 9, 2005:	Parties to the Kyoto protocol meet in Montreal, Canada, to discuss the future of the treaty.
2012	Provisions of the Kyoto protocol expire.
2014	The 20th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP 20) was held in Lima, Peru.
2015	The 21st session of the Conference of the Parties (COP 20) was held in Paris, France. New Climate Deal reached.

COP (Conference of Parties)

The United Nations Climate Change Conferences are yearly conferences held in the framework of the UNFCC. They serve as the formal meeting of the UNFCC Parties (Conferences of the Parties) (COP) to assess progress in dealing with climate change, and beginning in the mid-1990s, to negotiate the Kyoto Protocol to establish legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. From 2005 the Conferences have also served as the Meetings of Parties of the Kyoto Protocol (MOP). Also parties to the Convention that are not parties to the Protocol can participate in Protocol-related meetings as observers. The first conference was held in 1995 in Berlin, while the 2012 conference was held in Doha. On November 11–22, 2013, it was held in Warsaw, Poland.

1. 1995– COP 1, The Berlin Mandate

2. 1996 – COP 2, Geneva, Switzerland

3. 1997 – COP 3, The Kyoto Protocol on Climate  Change

4. 1998 – COP 4, Buenos Aires, Argentina

5. 1999 – COP 5, Bonn, Germany

6. 2000 – COP 6, The Hague, Netherlands

7. 2001 – COP 6 bis, Bonn, Germany

8. 2001 – COP 7, Marrakech, Morocco

9. 2002 – COP 8, New Delhi, India

10. 2003 – COP 9, Milan, Italy

11. 2004 – COP 10, Buenos Aires, Argentina

12. 2005 – COP 11/MOP 1, Montreal, Canada

13. 2006 – COP 12/MOP 2, Nairobi, Kenya

14. 2007 – COP 13/MOP 3, Bali, Indonesia

15. 2008 – COP 14/MOP 4, Poznan, Poland

16. 2009 – COP 15/MOP 5, Copenhagen, Denmark

17. 2010 – COP 16/MOP 6, Cancún, Mexico

18. 2011 – COP 17/MOP 7, South Africa

19.2012 – COP 18/MOP 8

Timeline of Major UN Climate Negotiations

2014— December – The 20th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP 20) is expected to take place in Lima, Peru.

 2013— COP 19 was held in Warsaw, Poland. Parties were expected to create a roadmap for the 2015 COP in Paris where a legally binding treaty to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is expected to be finalized (in order to come into effect in 2020). Differences of opinion on responsibility of GHG emissions between developing and developed countries led to a flexible ruling on the wording and a plan to discuss further at the COP 20 in Peru. A non-binding agreement was reached among countries to set up a system tackling the "loss and damage" issue, although details of how to set up the mechanism were not discussed. Concerning climate finance, the United Nations' Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) Program, aimed at preserving the world's forests, was formally adopted. Little progress was made on developed countries committing to the agreed upon plan of providing $100 billion per year by 2020 to developing countries.

 2012— COP 18 was held in Doha, Qatar. Parties agreed to extend the expiring Kyoto Protocol, creating a second commitment phase that would begin on January 1, 2013 and end December 31, 2020. This is considered as a bridge to the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action, agreed upon in 2011, and set to come into force in 2020. Parties failed to set a pathway to provide $100 billion per year by 2020 for developing countries to finance climate change adaptation, as agreed upon at COP 15 in Copenhagen. The concept of "loss and damage" was introduced as developed countries pledged to help developing countries and small island nations pay for the losses and damages from climate change that they are already experiencing.

 2011— November-December – COP 17 was held in Durban, South Africa. Parties agreed to the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action which is framework to establish a new international emissions reduction protocol. Under the Durban Platform, the details of the new protocol are to be finalized by 2015 and it will come into force in 2020. The European Union also agreed to extend their Kyoto Protocol targets, which were slated to expire at the end of 2012, into a second commitment period from 2013-2017. Russia, Japan and Canada did not commit to new targets.

 2010— January-November – The United States and over 130 nations agreed to the Copenhagen Accord that was announced in December 2009.

November-December – COP 16 was held in Cancun, Mexico. Parties officially adopted major tenets of the Copenhagen Accord including limiting global warming to 2°C, protecting vulnerable forests, and establishing a framework for a Green Climate Fund meant to deliver funds to developing countries for mitigation and adaptation actions.

 2009— June – As part of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) process, governments met in Bonn, Germany, to begin discussions on draft negotiations that would form the basis of an agreement at Copenhagen.

December – COP 15 was held in Copenhagen, Denmark. It failed to reach agreement on binding commitments after the Kyoto Protocol commitment period ends in 2012. During the final hours of the summit, leaders from the United States, Brazil, China, Indonesia, India and South Africa agreed to what would be called the Copenhagen Accord which recognized the need to limit the global temperature rise to 2°C based on the science of climate change. While no legally binding commitments were required by the deal, countries were asked to pledge voluntary GHG reduction targets. $100 billion was pledged in climate aid to developing countries.

U.S. State Department: U.S. Submission on Copenhagen Agreed Outcome

 2008— COP 14/CMP 4 were held in Poznan, Poland. Countries began negotiations on the financing mechanism to help poor countries adapt to the effects of climate change. Negotiations continued about what would succeed the Kyoto Protocol.

 2007— COP 13/CMP 3 were held in Bali. COP parties agreed to a Bali Action Plan to negotiate GHG mitigation actions after the Kyoto Protocol expires in 2012. The Bali Action Plan did not require binding GHG targets for developing countries.

 2006— COP 12/CMP 2 were held in Nairobi, Kenya. Financial mechanisms were reviewed, and further decisions were made about the Special Climate Change Fund.

 2005— COP 11/CMP 1 were held in Montreal, Canada. This conference was the first to take place after the Kyoto Protocol took force. The annual meeting between the parties (COP) was supplemented by the first annual Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP). The countries that had ratified the UNFCCC, but not accepted the Kyoto Protocol, had observer status at the latter conference. The parties addressed issues such as “capacity building, development and transfer of technologies, the adverse effects of climate change on developing and least developed countries, and several financial and budget-related issues, including guidelines to the Global Environment Facility (GEF).” (UNFCCC)

 2004— COP 10 was held in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Parties began discussing adaptation options. The parties “addressed and adopted numerous decisions and conclusions on issues relating to development and transfer of technologies; land use, land use change and forestry; the UNFCCC’s financial mechanism; [developed countries’] national communications; capacity building; adaptation and response measures; and UNFCCC Article 6 (education, training and public awareness) examining the issues of adaptation and mitigation, the needs of least developed countries (LDCs), and future strategies to address climate change.”

 2003— COP 9 was held in Milan, Italy. New emisssions reporting guidelines based on IPCC recommendations were adopted. The Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) and the Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF) were further developed.

 2002— COP 8 was held in Delhi, India. Parties adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that, among other things, called for developed countries to transfer technology to developing countries.

 2001— COP 7 was held in Marrakesh, Morocco. The detailed rules for the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol were adopted and called the Marrakesh Accords. The Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) was established to “finance projects relating to: adaptation; technology transfer and capacity building; energy transport, industry, agriculture, forestry and waste management; and economic diversification.” The Least Developed Countries Fund was also “established to support a work programme to assist Least Developed Country Parties (LDCs) carry out, inter alia [among other things], the preparation and implementation of national adaptation programmes of action (NAPAs).”

 2000— COP 6 part I was held in The Hague, Netherlands. Negotiations faltered, and parties agreed to meet again.

COP 6 part II was held in Bonn, Germany. Consensus was reached on what was called the Bonn Agreements. All nations except the United States agreed on the mechanisms for implementation of the Kyoto Protocol. The U.S. participated in observatory status only.

1999— COP 5 was held in Bonn, Germany. According to the UNFCCC, Parties continued negotiation efforts with a focus on “the adoption of the guidelines for the preparation of national communications by [developed] countries, capacity building, transfer of technology and flexible mechanisms.”

 1998— COP 4 was held in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Parties adopted the Buenos Aires Plan of Action, allowing a two year period to develop mechanisms for implementing the Kyoto Protocol. The COP also decided to review the financial mechanism of the Convention every four years.

 1997— COP 3 was held in Kyoto, Japan. On December 11, the Kyoto Protocol was adopted by consensus with more than 150 signatories. The Protocol included legally binding emissions targets for developed country Parties for the six major GHGs, which are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride. The Protocol offered additional means of meeting targets by way of three market-based mechanisms: emissions trading, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI). Under the Protocol, industrialized countries’ actual emissions have to be monitored and precise records have to be kept of the trades carried out.

The United States signed the Kyoto Protocol, but the Clinton administration never sent it to Congress for ratification. In July 1997, the Senate expressed its opposition to the terms of the Berlin Mandate by passing the "Byrd-Hagel" Resolution (95-0 vote).

 1996— COP 2 was held in Geneva, Switzerland. Attendees endorsed the results of the IPCC’s second assessment report. The Geneva Ministerial Declaration, which in part called on parties to accelerate negotiations on a legally binding protocol, was noted, but not adopted.

 1995— The first Conference of the Parties (COP 1) to the UNFCCC was held in Berlin, Germany. Parties agreed that mechanisms under the UNFCCC were inadequate and agreed to what would be called the Berlin Mandate, which allows parties to make specific commitments. Non-Annex 1 countries are exempted from additional obligations.

 1994— The UNFCCC Treaty entered into force after receiving 50 ratifications.

 1992— The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted and opened for signatures in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, at the UN Conference on Environment and Development, also known as the Earth Summit. 154 signatories to the UNFCCC agreed to stabilize "greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous interference with the climate system." The United States was the fourth nation to ratify the UNFCCC, and the first industrialized nation to do so. The treaty is not legally binding because it sets no mandatory limits on GHG emissions. Instead, the treaty provides for future negotiations to set emissions limits. The first principal revision is the Kyoto Protocol (see 1997).

RIO + 20

Rio+20 is the short name for the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development.  It took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 2012. Since there is twenty years of gap (2012-1992) between these two summits, the latest RIO Summit is nicknamed “RIO +20”

 By this conference UN wanted to bring together governments, international institutions and major (NGO) groups to agree on a range of smart measures for

§  poverty reduction

§  clean energy

§  Sustainable development. And this Sustainble Development has three pillars

§  economic development,

§  social development

§  environmental protection.

The primary result of the conference was the nonbinding document, "The Future We Want," a 49 page work paper. In it, the heads of state of the 192 governments in attendance renewed their political commitment to sustainable development and declared their commitment to the promotion of a sustainable future. The document largely reaffirms previous action plans like Agenda 21. Some important outcomes include the following:

“The text includes language supporting the development of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), a set of measurable targets aimed at promoting sustainable development globally. It is thought that the SDGs will pick up where the Millennium Development Goals leave off and address criticism that the original Goals fail to address the role of the environment in development.”

The attempt to shore up the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) in order to make it the “leading global environmental authority” by setting forth eight key recommendations including, strengthening its governance through universal membership, increasing its financial resources and strengthening its engagement in key UN coordination bodies.

Nations agreed to explore alternatives to GDP as a measure of wealth that take environmental and social factors into account in an effort to assess and pay for ‘environmental services’ provided by nature, such as carbon sequestration and habitat protection.

Recognition that "fundamental changes in the way societies consume and produce are indispensable for achieving global sustainable development.” EU officials suggest it could lead to a shift of taxes so workers pay less and polluters and landfill operators pay more.

The document calls the need to return ocean stocks to sustainable levels “urgent” and calls on countries to develop and implement science based management plans.

COP 21, PARIS

The twenty-first session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) and the eleventh session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP) took place from 30 November to 11 December 2015, in Paris, France. Climate change negotiations have been going on for more than twenty years, but it was only at 21st edition of the United Nations Climate Change Conference that both rich and poor countries agreed to limit greenhouse gas emissions, part of an internationally binding pact. In Paris, 189 countries representing 98% of the world’s emissions were listed in the agreement, each pledging to reduce or cap emissions based on their historical responsibility. 

Main provisions of ‘New Climate Deal’:

§  Hold rise in global average temperature to ‘well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels’

§  Rich nations must maintain $100 bn/year funding pledge beyond 2020, and use it as a ‘floor’ for further support agreed by 2025

§  Nations will have to reach a peak in greenhouse emissions ‘as soon as possible’ and achieve a balance ‘by the second half of this century’

§  First ‘global stock take’ in 2023 and every five years thereafter unless otherwise decided

§  Lists existing international mechanism to deal with unavoidable losses and damages caused by climate change

Analysis:

The Paris Agreement articulates two long-term emission goals: first, a peaking of emissions as soon as possible (with a recognition that it will take longer for developing countries); then, a goal of net greenhouse gas neutrality (expressed as “a balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks”) in the second half of this century.  The latter was an alternative to terms like “decarbonization” and “climate neutrality” pushed by some parties. With respect to countries’ individual mitigation efforts, the agreement prescribes a set of binding procedural commitments: to “prepare, communicate and maintain” an NDC; to provide information necessary for clarity and transparency; and to communicate a new NDC every five years.  It also sets the expectation that each successive NDC will “represent a progression” beyond the previous one and reflect a party’s “highest possible ambition.” The agreement commits parties to “pursue domestic measures with the aim of achieving the objectives” of its NDC, but does not make the implementation or achievement of NDCs a binding obligation.  It also encourages, but does not require, countries to develop and communicate long-term low emission development strategies.

In broad structure, the Paris Agreement reflects a “hybrid” approach blending bottom-up flexibility, to achieve broad participation, with top-down rules, to promote accountability and ambition. The Paris Agreement is a treaty under international law, but only certain provisions are legally binding. Many provisions establish common commitments while allowing flexibility to accommodate different national capacities and circumstances – either through self-differentiation, as implicit in the concept of nationally determined contributions, or through more detailed operational rules still to be developed.

AGENDA 21

Agenda 21 is a non-binding, voluntarily implemented action plan of the United Nations with regard to sustainable development. The "21" in Agenda 21 refers to the 21st Century. The Commission on Sustainable Development acts as a high-level forum on sustainable development and has acted as preparatory committee for summits and sessions on the implementation of Agenda 21. The UN Division for Sustainable Development acts as the secretariat to the Commission and works "within the context of" Agenda 21.

Implementation by member states remains voluntary, and its adoption has varied.

Agenda 21 is a 300-page document divided into 40 chapters that have been grouped into 4 sections:

Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions is directed toward combating poverty, especially in developing countries, changing consumption patterns, promoting health, achieving a more sustainable population, and sustainable settlement in decision making.

Section II: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development Includes atmospheric protection, combating deforestation, protecting fragile environments, conservation of biological diversity (biodiversity), control of pollution and the management of biotechnology, and radioactive wastes.

Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups includes the roles of children and youth, women, NGOs, local authorities, business and industry, and workers; and strengthening the role of indigenous peoples, their communities, and farmers.

Section IV: Means of Implementation: implementation includes science, technology transfer, education, international institutions and financial mechanisms.

The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, agreed at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Earth Summit 2002) affirmed UN commitment to "full implementation" of Agenda 21, alongside achievement of the Millennium Development Goals and other international agreements.

The first World Public Meeting on Culture, held in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2002, came up with the idea to establish guidelines for local cultural policies, something comparable to what Agenda 21 was for the environment. They are to be included in various subsections of Agenda 21 and will be carried out through a wide range of sub-programs beginning with. G8 countries

In 2012, at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development the attending members reaffirmed their commitment to Agenda 21 in their outcome document called "The Future We Want". 180 leaders from nations participated.

Evaluation or Criticism of Climate Protocol

• The protocol has been observed as socially unjust as it is not based on the per capita concept. This concept is necessary as about 20% of the total population of the world residing in the developed countries is responsible for making 80% of total GHG emission that too to fulfill their luxury based requirements. The per capita emission in Western Europe & Northern America is about 20 to 40 times than that in developing countries.
• Under Clean Development Mechanism, a developed country can take credit for GHG emission reduction achieved in the developing countries without doing anything significant domestically & yet they can fulfill their obligations under the protocol. 
• With the economic collapse of erstwhile USSR and other countries in Eastern Europe, the GHG levels of industrialized countries have already come down by 4.5.% below the 1990 levels. Therefore, the industrialized countries in real terms have to reduce only 0.7% of their GHG gas emissions level of 1990 which can be easily done under CDM.
• The Sellers of GHG emission reduction credits may sell those credits on terms and conditions favorable to itself. Therefore, the protocol is ecologically not very effective & is seen more as a carbon trading agreement than an ecological agreement.

India’s Stand

• India & china are the leading developing countries in their stand against developed countries. India wants that there should be an official distinction between luxury based emission of North & survival based emission of South. Moreover, India claims that any global agreement towards reduction of GHG shall be successful only if it is based on the per capita concept. Only than world can move away from a world based on carbon based energy generation and consumption pattern to a carbon free world.
• In September 2005, a new Asia Pacific partnership on clean development and climate was convened by countries such as Australia, Japan, South Korea, China, India & USA at Vientiane, Laos. India claims that this partnership is aimed at developing & transferring clean cost effective more efficient, carbon friendly technology for the purpose of pollution reduction, energy security and climate change, consistent with the principles of UNFCCC.

Some measures

Ecological Development Programme; The main purpose of this programme is to regenerate environment degraded areas with peoples participation by creating general awareness. Ecological Development Board organizes various activities for environmental protection, students camps and mobilizes voluntary agencies.

Global Environment Facility (GEF)

It was established in 1991, as an independent financial mechanism provides grants to developing countries and economies in transition for projects that benefit the global environment and promote sustainable livelihoods. India is a founder member of GEF. 

GEF project address six focal areas – biodiversity, climate change, land degradation, international waters, ozone layer depletion and persistent organic pollutants. GEF projects are implemented through its 10 agencies including UNDP, WB, UNEP, UNIDO, FAO, IFAD, ADB, AFDB, EBRD and IDB.

Some Points Regarding Climate Change

•  “Development progress is increasingly going to be hindered by climate change. So we must see the fight against poverty and the fight against the effects of climate change as interrelated efforts. They must reinforce each other and success must be achieved on both fronts jointly.”
• Fighting climate change: human solidarity in a divided world.
• IPCC’s report – the economies of climate change”. – that the climate change is both real and man-made.
• Climate change mitigation has now registered firmly on the agenda of the G-8 nation.
• Present 350 ppm. – CO2 emission.
• If stabilized at 450 ppm – temperature will increase 20C from preindustrialized time.
• If 7500 ppm – then 50C increment.
• Accelerated collapse of ice sheets in the Antarctic and Greenland, acidification of the oceans, the retreat of rainforest systems and melting of Arctic permafrost.
• With 15% of world population, rich countries account for almost half of emissions of CO2.

High growth in China and India is leading to a gradual convergence in aggregate emission