Traditionally, Caste can be defined as hereditary endogamous group, having a common name, common traditional occupation, common culture, relatively rigid in matters of mobility, distinctiveness of status and forming a single homogenous community.

In theory, the caste system is interlinked with the ‘Varna’ model which divides the Hindu society into four orders, viz.,

The first three castes are ‘twice-born’ or ‘dvija’ since the men from these castes are entitled to don the sacred thread at the Vedic rite of Upanayan, which the Shudras were not allowed to perform. The untouchable castes are outside the Varna scheme.

The term ‘varna’ literally means colour and it was originally used to refer to the distinction between Arya and Dasa, in ancient India. According to the Reg-Veda, it was not applied to any classes, such as Brahmin, Kshatriya, etc. However, the classes which existed at that time later came to be described as varna and the original distinction between Arya and Dasa gave place to the distinction between Arya and Shudra .

The caste system is an all-India phenomenon of which the Varna model provides an all-India macro-structural scheme. In other words, the Varna model only provides a framework within which the innumerable variations of castes throughout India are found. According to the Varna scheme there are only four groups(Varnas).

This scheme excludes the untouchables and its number is same throughout India. But this is not true in reality since even during the vedic period, occupational groups existed which were not subsumed by varna, although one cannot be sure whether these groups can be called castes or not. According to Ghurye, in each linguistic region, there are about 200 caste groups(Castes), which are further, sub-divided into about 3,000 smaller units(Subcastes or gotras) each of which is endogamous and provides the area of effective social life for the individual. Therefore, one can easy that the Varna scheme refers at the most only to the broad categories of the society and not to be actually existing effective units.

Features of Caste System

Division into Segments. In caste system whole society is divided into segments or sections. In the society then there are different groups and compulsory associations and the people associated with these groups and associations sometimes care more for their caste than for the community as a whole. One of the features of the caste system is that it sub-divides itself. After sometime there is a division in the caste, which results in sub-divisions. As the time passes, these subdivisions get again sub-divided and thus the whole process goes on.

Hereditary. Caste has become hereditary which implies that birth of a person in a particular caste decides his/her caste. It is more or less impossible to change one’s caste, no matter whether one is fit or unfit to remain in the caste of birth.

Caste, is by definition a closed social system whose membership is acquired by virtue of birth. However, when we examine historical data ranging back to the Vedic period we find that in reality there existed a lot of flexibility. Social mobility with the gain of economic and political power was always present. M. N. Srinivas identifies the process of Sanskritisation showing the flexibility in caste system. According to Srinivas, “Sanskritisation is the process by which a ‘low’ Hindu caste, or tribal or other group, changes its customs, ritual, ideology, and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently, ‘twice-born’ caste”. To simplify, the castes occupying relatively lower positions in the system of caste hierarchy quite often imitate the cultural patterns of the higher castes. This is usually followed by a claim to higher rank or higher caste status.

Caste Hierarchy. In case system there is always a hierarchy, which implies that, there are some castes, which are considered superior as compared with the others. Membership in the caste hierarchy is based on birth and is more or less fixed. Thus in India, a Brahman is at the top in the hierarchy whereas at the lowest end is the Shudra. In between are the Kshatriya and the Vaish.

Restrictions on Occupations. In the system there are not only restrictions on inter-action movement, residence and worship but also on occupation. Some castes are supposed to engage themselves it particular types of jobs and usually it is difficult to leave that. Usually entry into an occupation by a person, who does not belong to she caste by which it is monopolized, is very much opposed and resented. E.g Manual scavenging is a caste-based occupation, which involves the removal of untreated human excreta from bucket toilets or pit latrines. It has been officially abolished by the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act 2013.

Restrictions on Inter-action. In caste system there are many restrictions on inter-action. The people of one caste cannot mix or move freely with the people belonging to other castes and classes. This ban on inter-action becomes still more rigid when the question of mixing of higher caste with the lower one comes to the front. Every caste accepts certain well-established and well-defined norms of inter-action.

Analysis: Untouchability has been legally abolished and declared a punishable crime under the Constitution of India.

Disabilities and Restrictions. In rigid caste system the people belonging to higher caste in the hierarchy impose certain lowest castes in the hierarchy were not allowed even to dwell in the cities and purchase property in the posh localities. They were not allowed to go to the temples even for worship. Not only this but they were not even permitted to study religious books, etc. Thus the highest in the hierarchy imposed many restrictions on the lowest and those in the middle of the hierarchy.

Untouchability is the practice of ostracizing a group by segregating them from the mainstream by social custom. Untouchability was a corollary of the caste system, wherein the untouchables (those belonging to the lowest caste groups) were deemed impure and polluted.

Marriage Restrictions. In caste system marriage restrictions are very many. Thus an inter caste marriage is not only seen with disfavour but is also very much resented and discouraged. It is believed that such marriages provide an in road into the otherwise strong caste citadel.

It will thus be observed that caste system has its particular and peculiar features. Their observance and rigidity is only that of degree, from one society to the other, but not of the kind. Even so called advanced societies observe caste-distinction in one form or the other.

Change and continuity in caste

• During the last few decades as a result of the forces of modernisation, the ideology of caste has become less pervasive in an individual’s day to day life. Caste rituals have become increasingly a personal affair, rather than public due to changed circumstances of living, forces of industrialisation, and urbanisation.
• Civil and Religious disabilities have been removed at the level of great tradition but these disabilities in a suppressed form are visible at the level of little traditions in few regions especially in the rural areas of southern India
• Restrictions on feeding and social intercourse have lost relevance particularly in the urban areas. But at the rural level, there is a wide variation w.r.t. Observation of these restrictions.
• In urban areas, alternative structures having no caste basis have emerged e.g. transportation, restaurants etc. which have diminished the distinction.
• In the case of Marriage relationships, caste is yet considered as the most important criteria but ritual status is not the only consideration. A person’s class position is also frequently referred. Due to economic and social necessities, inter-caste marriages on western lines are being performed at increased frequency.
• At the urban level, caste basis of residence has completely gone but in few cities, the caste based mohallas have come into existence. (city of Ahmedabad, Gujarat). Slums in urban area show a particular residential pattern having caste basis.
• At the rural level, the caste basis of residence is continuing to an extent but with a changed nature i.e. there is no restrictions w.r.t. the nature of the house (kacha or pucca).
• Due to frequent mixing of the people at meetings, conferences, seminars etc., food habits have changed. Moreover, people have adapted to new social norms such as eating at the same table, accepting food prepared by low caste people without any reservations etc.
• Occupational basis of caste have been totally disturbed. Convergence has largely disappeared. Due to steps initiated by the government, position of lower castes have improved economically as well as socially. In a city a person generally does not ask the caste of a cook who serves in a restaurant. A person who might be a Brahmin by caste may work in a shoe factory, and so on. But Certain castes are still continuing with their traditional occupations. E.g big business houses e.g. Singhanias, Dalmias etc. Chettiyars of South traditional money lenders who are now controlling the banking business in S. India. At the wider level a broad identification is there which although is not binding i.e. priests are mostly Brahmins, Vaishyas are identified with the business and  Barbers, Carpenters and Lohars are traditional occupations but this is not binding.
• Change is at the level of  availability of education to all irrespective of the caste. Education is no longer having a caste basis. The quantity, curriculum or place are same for all. Continuity seems to be operating at the level of importance to education at the sub-cultural level. Lower literacy rate among the lower castes proves this.

Caste and politics

• In the post-independence period, it has been seen that the role of caste has increased (strengthened) in Indian politics.
• It is the only area where the caste basis of Indian politics instead of weakening has strengthened.
• Caste in the post-independence period has undergone through a process of adaptation, transforming its role from ideology to a medium.
• On one had there is Universal Adult Franchise which totally changes the their relationship between caste and politics.
• Caste Associations have emerged as an adaptive structures acting as pressure groups to fulfill their interests. E.g. Jat Sabha, Khandwa Sabha in Rajasthan purely organized on the basis of caste.
• As the democratic political system is based on the numerical strength, political parties tend to nominate the candidates on the basis of caste affiliations
• Political parties fielding the candidates on the name of castes.
• Formation of political parties on the basis of caste e.g. Samata Party, RJD, Samajwadi Party.
• Caste is a used as a medium by the government in reservation. It aim to disturb the traditional power structure. In Mandal Commission , Use of caste for development is seen

Some data  on Change

• The period between 2000 and 2015 has witnessed a higher rate of growth of higher education participation rates for all groups, more so for SCs
• The Gross Enrolment Ratio in higher education has witnessed tremendous improvement in past 15 years. Among SCs, it has improved to 19.1% in 2014-15 in comparison to a mere 8.4% in 2005-06.
• Women from SC/ST have benefitted tremendously from this boom. Their participation has almost tripled in the period of 15 years.

Date on Continuity

• A bulk of Group IV jobs i.e. lower government and private sector jobs are largely populated by SC/ST reproducing a sort of hierarchical pyramid in modern secular occupations.
• Not even 5% of Rural SC/ST Households are employed in formal sector.
• The NCRB Data showed that with Rajasthan accounting just 6% of Dalit population accounted for 17% of crimes against community. MP, Haryana, Jharkahnd also showed huge rise in atrocities between 2013-15

Factors Affecting the Changes in Caste System

• Sanskritisation: Sanskritisation as a process of change is the mobility concerned with positional change in the caste system. By changing the customs and rituals such as by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism, people belonging to the low castes are claiming a ‘higher’ position in the caste hierarchy.
• Westernisation: Due to changes in the spheres of education, food habits, dressing sense, style of eating, manners etc., westernization has brought occupational changes cutting across the caste barriers.
• Modernisation: It is a process which primarily relies on scientific outlook, rational attitudes, high social mobility, mass mobilisation and specialisation in work. It has made caste system more flexible. For instances, in the urban areas, castes are gradually becoming classes. The emergence of middle class with a rational outlook and goal orientation is a testimony to the fact.
• Industrialisation and urbanisation: With the growth of industrial towns and cities, migration has spiralled up. Unlike the source regions, destination areas witness fewer adherences to caste rules.
• Democratic decentralisation: The reservation provided in the Panchayati Raj system has given the opportunity for the lower castes to empower themselves.
• Legislative measures: A variety of social legislations have been introduced in the postindependence era which aim to safeguard the interests of the down-trodden, to eradicate untouchability and to facilitate the social and economic development of the depressed castes. For instance, Untouchability (offences) Act, 1955 provided for punishment against the practice of untouchability.
• The diminishing of caste line is imperative to uphold the democratic principles enshrined in our constitution while fulfilling the aspirations of our forefathers.

CASTE AMONG THE NON-HINDUS

• The egalitarian social order among Muslims stands in sharp contrast with the ideology of caste. Caste like features among  Muslims in India is in the form of distinction between the Ashraf, the "honourable", and the Ajlaf, the "commoner."The former are supposed to be decendants of distinguished foreign, non-Indian , ancestors. Traditionally, they  are landowners, civic and religious leaders. They are also generally more wealthy and "more purely Islamic" among the Muslims of their locality.  Asharafs include Sayyads, Shaikh, Mughals. Whereas Ajlaf are lower and are engaged in scavenging, sweeping and other menial tasks rank very low in the social hierarchy.
• While converts from higher castes have been integrated in the main group of Syrian Christians (originals), social distinction between palyas, converts from untouchable groups, and Surian Christians is kept. It has also been observed that Bengali Christians continue to use surname showing their earlier castes about which they are very particular in social intercourse and marriage. These studies exemplify the ways in which the stigma of untouchability is manifest within the Christian community.
• The Sikhs, or adherents of Sikhism, who emerged in early 16th century in protest against ritualism and distortions in both Hinduism and Islam, are particularly strong in Punjab; No doubt the religious dogma of the Sikhs is categorically against caste system. But seen in terms of existence and functioning of different castes, the Sikhs, have castes which can be identified in the same manner as the Hindu groups. Sikhs are broadly divided into Sardars and Mazhabis. The former consists of high castes and the  latter of sweepers. The sardars include Jat and Kamboh (land-owners), Tarkhan (carpenter), Kumhar (potter), Mehra (water-carrier), and Cimba (washerman).