• This age is also called Painted Grey Ware (PGW) phase.
• The history of this period is based on later Vedic texts which include Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, Brahmanas, Aryankas and Upanishads.
• During the later Vedic phase the Aryans have thoroughly subdued the fertile plains watered by Yamuna, upper Ganga and Sadnira. They also crossed Vindhyas and established their kingdome in Deccan to the north of Godawri.

Political organization

• In later vedic times popular assemblies lost importance and royal power increased at their cost.
• The ‘Vidhata’ completely disappeared. The Sabha and Samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed and they came to be dominated by chiefs and rich nobles.
• Women were not longer permitted to site in ‘Sabha’ and in was not dominated by nobles and brahamanas.
• The formation of wider kingdom made the king more powerful. Tribal authority tended to become territorial.
• The term ‘Rastra’ which indicates `territory’ first appears in this period.
• Traces of election appear in later vedic texts. The one who was considered best in physical and other qualities was elected Raja. he received voluntary presents called ‘Bali’ from his ordinary kins men or ‘vis’.
• Kingship was made hereditary and post generally went to eldest son.
• King’s influence was strengthened by rituals like:
• (1)  Rajsuya yajna – was the royal consecration ceremony which was to confer supreme power on king.
• (2)  Vajapeya  - drink of strength, was a charot race in which royal chariot was made to win against kinsmen.The ritual lasted for 17 days and was believed not only to restore the strength of middle aged king but to elevate him from Raja to Samrat
• Asvamedha – was a horse sacrifice which lasted for 3 days.?It was meant to claim unquestionable control over the areas in which royal horse roamed freely. Kings were known with different names in different region.
• Eastern King-Samrat
• Western King-Suvrat
• North King-Virat
• Southern King-Bhoja

Later vedic economy

• In eastern U.P. and Videha the earliest Iron implement belongs to 700 B.C. The word Shyama or Krishna, Ayas was used for Iron.
• Agriculture was the main source of livelihood of later vedic people. Ploughing was done with the help of wooden ploughshare.
• The Shatapatha Brahamana speaks at length about ploughing rituals.
• During later vedic period rice and wheat became the chief crops. For the first time vedic people came to be acquainted with rice in doab, it is called Virhi in vedic text and its remains have been discovered from Hastinapur belonging to 800 B.C.
• The later vedic period saw the rise of diverse crafts and arts.
• Weaving was confined to women but was practiced on large scale. Leatherwork, pottery and carpentery made a great progress.
• The latter vedic people were acquainted with four types of pottery:Black and Red ware, Black Slipped ware, Plain Grey ware
• Red ware  - was the most popular.
• However the most distinctive pottery of later vedic period was Painted Grey Ware.
• Various painted grey ware sites have been discovered in western U.P. and Delhi (Kuru – Parchola area) in Punjab and Haryana (Madra areas) and in Rajathan (Matasya area).
• Only few sites such as Hastinapur, Noh and Atranjikhera have been excavated.
• The Term ‘Nagara’ for cities is for first time mentioned in later vedic text, but only a faint beginning of town towards the end of later vedic period can be noticed.
• The Shatapata Brahama refers to sea (Arabian and Indian Ocean) and sea voyages.
• Shatapata Brahamana speaks first of money leading.

Social organization

• The later vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras.

Gotra

• The institution of gotra appeared in later vedic times.
• The original meaning of ‘gotra’ is cowshed or a herd of cow appeared in Rig Vedia.
• In Atharva Veda the word first appears meaning a clan.
• Gotra signified descent from a common ancestor. The were eight in numbers Kasyapa, Vasishta, Bhrigu, Gautam, Bharadwaj, Attri, Vishvamitra and Agastya.
• People began to gratice gotra exogamy.

Ashramas

• In post vedic times we hear of Ashramas that of Brahmachari or student, Grihsta or Householder, Vanaprastha or hermit, and Sanyasi or ascetic who completely renounced the wordly life.
• The Chhandogya Upanishad refers to first three ashramas – recluse is not given.
• The earliest clear reference to four Ashramas that of a student, householder, forest hermit and recluse is found in Jabala Upanishad.

Later vedic religion

• The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods Indra and Agni lost their former importance
• Prajapati, the creator god came to occupy the supreme position in later vedic pantheon.
• Rudra, the god of animals became more important and Vishnu came to be conceived as preserved and protector of people.
• Signs of idolatory appeared in later vedic period.
• As society came to be divided into social classes, some of the social order came to have their own duties. ‘Pushan’ who was supposed to look after cattle, came to be regarded as god of sudras.
• People worshipped god for the fulfillment of material desires. Prayers continued to be rectited but sacrifices became far more important and assumed bother public and domestic character.
• Towards the end of Vedic period began a strong reaction against a priestly domination, cults and rituals in lands of Panchalas and Videha where Upanishads were compiled in 600 B.C.
• The Upanishads criticized the rituals and laid stress on value of right belief and knowledge.
• They emphasized that knowledge of self (Atman) should be acquired and relation of Atman with Brahma (God) should be properly understood.
• Deeds of one life affected the next. This gave the theory of Karma.
• The later vedic period saw certain changes:
• Wars were fought not only for cow but also for territory.
• The society because agricultural, from a pastoral society of early Rig Vedic age.
• The tribal society broke up into a varna-divided society.
• No regular system of taxes and no professional army.
• Chiefs grew at the expense of tribal peasantry and handsomely awarded the priest who supported their patrons against the common people called Vaishyas.

• The word ‘veda’ is derived from Sanskrit root ‘Vid’ meaning ‘to know’ or knowledge par excellence.
• Vedic texts are Shruti (heard) which is distinct from Smriti (Remembrance).
• The four Vedas, brahamanas, Aryankas and Upanishads-all are Sruti.
• The Veda consists of Mantras,
• Brahmanas, Aryankas and Upanishads. Martres are distributed into Samhita-Rigveda,Samveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.
• Rigveda – it is foundation of all vedic literature, consists mainly of lyrics in prasise of different gods mainly Indra, Varuna and Agni.
• Contains 1028 Suktas, is divided into 10 Mandals or books.
• II to VII books are earliest and are also called family books. they are attributed to Gristamada Visvamitra, Vasudeva, Attri, Bhardwaj, Vashista, Kanva and Angiras.
• mandal IX is dedicated exclusively to Soma.
• The Tenth Mandal contains the famous Purushsukta hymn that explains the origin of four Varnas.
• The hymn were recited by priests styled as Hotris.
• Gayatric Mantra forms the most sacred hymn of Rig Veda.
• Samveda – 1603 verses – derived its roots from ‘Saman’ i.e. melody.
• The verses of Rigveda were given tune for the purpose of singing.
• These songs were meant to be sung by a special class of priests called ‘udgatri’.
• Yajur Veda (Book of sacrificial prayers).
• Written in prose, it deals with procedure for performance of sacrifices and contains rituals as well as hymns.
• Its verses were recited by ‘Adhasya’ priest of ‘Advaryu’.
• Shayama Yajurveda – it is older and contains commentaries in prose in addition to text.
• Sukla Yajurveda – contains instructions only.
• Atharva Veda (Book of Magical Formula)
• It contains charms and spells to ward off evil and disease.
• It s contents throw light on practices of non-Aryans.

Brahamanas

• They marked the transistion from vedic to later Brahmanical order.
• They are the prose commentaries on vedic hymns.
• Basically they are appendices to the Vedas which deal with rules of sacrifice and contain ritualistic formulae for respective Vedas and priest.

Aryankas

• They are final parts of the Brahmanas.
• The explain metaphysics and symbolism of sacrifice.
• Aranyakas meaning forest book were taught in forest due to their magical powers.

Upanishad

• Derived from word upanish meaning (to site down near some one) are commentaries appended to Aranytakas and deals mainly with philosophy.
• There are 108 upanishads compiled between 800-500 B.C.
• They are anti-ritualistic and define doctrine of Karma, Atman (Soul) and god (Brahma).
• They given valuable information for the reign of king Prakshit to Bimbisar
• Upvedas : Four in number:

Shruti literature : Vedangas

• In order tounderstand the vedic text it was necessary to learn the Vedangas or the limb of Vedas. These are treatise on science and arts. They are
• (1)  SHIKSHA (Phonetics)
• (2)  KALPA (Ritual)
• (3)  VYAKARANA (Grammar)
• (4)  CHHAND (Metrics)
• (5)  NIRUKTA (Etymology)
• (6)  JYOTISHA) (Astronomy)
• Yaska’s Nirukta (5th century B.C.) is the oldest Indian linguistic text.
• Panini wrote Astadhayayi (4th Century B.C.) on Vyakaran.

Epics

• The two epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata) and major puranas seems to have been finally compiled by circa A.D. 400.
• Of the epics the Mahabharata attributed to Vyasa is older in age and possibly reflects the state of affairs from 10th century B.C. to 4th century A.D.
• Originally Mahabharata consisted of 8800 verses and was called ‘Jayasamhita’ or collection dealing with victory. These were raised to 24000 and came to be known as Bharata. The final compilation brought the verses to 100,000 which came to be known as Mahabharata or Satshri Samhita.
• The Ramayana of Valmiki originally consisted of 600 verses which were raised to 12000 and finally to 24,000.
• The Ramayana composistion started in 5th century B.C. since then it passed through five stages and fifth stage seems to be as late as 12th century A.D.

Puranas

• These are termed as real histories of Ancient India because they contain the most systematic record of Indian historical tradition.
• Puranas are eighteen in number and there are also up-puranas – Vishnu, Vayu, Brahma, Matsya and Bhagwata are of much historical importance

Ritual literature

• Kalpa Sutra is divided into three sections in post-vedic times:
• (i)   Srauta Sutras – dealing with large public sacrifices, provided for several pompous royal coronation ceremony.
• (ii)  Ghriya Sutras – deals with domestic rituals connected with birth, naming, marriage etc.
• (iii) Sulva Sutras – prescribes varius kinds of measurement for the construction of sacrificial altars.

Sources

• The sources of information of the Harappan civilization are mainly archaeological, while the Vedic culture is mostly known from the literary sources - the Vedas.

Origin

• Harappans are said to have been the original inhabitants of India while the Aryans, the founders of Vedic culture, are believed to have come to India from Central Asia.

Character

• The Harappan civilization was urban in character as evident in its town-planning, drainage system,  granary and so on.
• The Indus towns were well-planned, divided into two well- laid out parts - the citadel and lower town with elaborate gateways.
• The Vedic culture was rural. There was almost complete absence of towns in the Rigvedic period.
• At best the Rigvedic Aryans lived in fortified places protected by mud walls; and these cannot be regarded as towns in the Harappan sense.

Trade & Occupation

• In the Indus civilization trade, internal and external, crafts as well as industries were the main sources of economy,
• The later- Vedic economy on the other hand had predominance of agriculture and cattle rearing.

Agriculture

• In the Harappan civilization the only instance of furrowing the fields has been found from Kalibangan.
• The various agricultural operations, including the ploughing of fields, were better known to the later-Vedic people and they owed this knowledge to the non-Vedic people.
• For early Vedic people pastoralism was the more prestigious profession.

Metal

• Indus people did not know the use of iron.
• It (Harappan Civilization) was purely a 'copper-bronze' culture.
• The Vedic culture in its later phase is replete with references to iron.

Horse

• A few bones of horse and terracotta figure of a 'horse-like animal' have been unearthed from Surkotada (Gujarat).
• However,  it has not been convincingly proved that the horse was employed by the Harappans.
• However, vedic aryans were well aware of the Horse and it played a key role in the Aryan Warfare Tactics.

War

• Indus people were basically peace loving.
• Their arms (swords, daggers, arrow-heads, and spears) were primitive in nature.
• No evidence of armour, helmet, body armour or shield is available.
• The Aryans, on the contrary, were warriors and were conversant with all kinds of traditional arms and armour and had devised a full-fledged 'science of war'.

Kinship

• The Vedic society was primarily based on kinship where as the Harappan culture could not be basically kin-based.

Religion

• The Harappans worshipped Pashupati, Mother Goddess, animals, snake and nature.
• The fire-altars were discovered from only one Harappan site at Kalibangan.
• The Harappans practised earth burials whereas the Aryans practised cremation.
• The Aryans worshiped Varuna, Indra, Aditi and a large number of other deities which stood for the principal phenomena of nature.
• They performed sacrifices and offered milk, ghee, etc. to their gods.

Pottery

• The Harappan pottery called 'black or red pottery' was wheel made and very distinctive in nature.
• From all the Harappan sites fragments of this typical pottery have been collected in large numbers.
• The distinctive Aryan pottery is known as PGW (Painted Grey Ware).

Physical Appeareance

• The facial features and the physical types differed considerably.
• The Harappans were short stature, black in complexion and comparatively thin with short nose, thick lips and tiny eyes.
• The Aryans were tall, well-built and handsome with long and pointed nose, thin lips, pointed chins, broad shoulders and fair complexion.

Eating Habits

• The life style was also different.
• The Harappans ate all birds and animals including cow and calf.
• They ate wheat, barley and bread.
• The Aryans preferred milk and its products, specially ghee or butter and enjoyed Soma drink. Meat of the animals scarified was eaten.

Dressing Sense

• The dress and costumes, the hair-do's and the cosmetics, the jewellery and the ornaments etc. of the two cultures differed.
• The Harappan women put on a skirt and men used a band of cloth round their loins.
• The Aryans used embroidered cloth along with the ones made of leather, hide or skin.
• Cotton was the basic fabric of the Harappans while the Aryans put on woollen garments too.

Langauge

• It is quite evident that the Indus people were literate.
•  The Indus script however,  still remains undeciphered and we are completely in the dark about its literary developments.
• Vedic Sanskrit is the mother of all non-Dravidian languages of India and almost all Indian Languages were deeply influenced by it.
• We do not have any word for writing in any of the Vedic texts, for this reason, some scholars believe that Vedic People were illiterate in terms of "writing".

• The six Darshans were written between the 6th century and at the time of Ashoka. These are given in the form of Sutras or aphorisms. These are as follows.

• (Purva) Mimansa: Sought to explain and revive Vedas concerned with ritual. No necessity of benavolent or active God. The earliest work of this school is said to be the Sutras of Jaimini (C. 6th Century B.C.), the greatest of the early ‘mimamsa’ scholars was Shabarsvamin who flourished in the 6th century A.D.
• Vaisheshika: It is older then “Nayaya. Founder was Uluka Kanada. The greatest of his commentators, Prashashtappad, perhaps lived in the sixth century.
• Yoga: The basic text goes back to the Yoga Sutra of PatanJali (2nd century B.C.). The present form is attributed to Vyas, who lived seven centuries later.
• Nyaya: Founder was Akshapada Gautam (early centuries of Christian era). Pakshilasvamin Vatsyayan, its main expositor, may be referred to the fourth century A.D. It gives emphasis on Tarka or logic, which the basis of all studies. Akshapader literally means “the eye-footed”, i.e., the eyes directed on the foot.
• Sankhaya: Authored by Kapila, who lived about 580 B.C. Mentioned in Bhagavat, Gita, and occurring in a primitive form in the Upanishads. Its fundamental principle is the dualism of Purusha and Prakriti. Prakriti is developed by the Kinds of Gunas, viz., saltva (source of good and happiness), Raias (source of good and happiness), Rajas (source of activity and pain) Tamas (source of activity and pain) Tamas (source of ignorance, sloth and apathy). World is not real. Prakriti etemal. Sankhya does not believe in the existence of God. Prakriti and Purush-Independent of God.
• Uttara Mimansa (also called Vedanta): BadrayanA is said to have formulated its main tenets in the early Christian centuries. Gaudapada, an important thinker of this school lived around the middle of the sixth century A.D. Vedanta contains 555-Sutras
• divided into four chapters.

• A number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the subcontinent, many mentioned during Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far back as 1000 BCE. By 500 BCE, sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as the Mahajanapadas — Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Machcha (or Matsya), Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, Kamboja — stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharastra. This period was that of the second major urbanisation in India after the Indus Valley Civilization.

Origin And Developments Of Mahajanapadas

• The political structure of the ancient Indians appears to have started with semi-nomadic tribal units called Jana (meaning "people" or by extension "ethnic group" or "tribe").
• Early Vedic texts attest several Janas or tribes of the Indo-Aryans, living in a semi-nomadic tribal state and fighting among themselves and with other Non-Aryan tribes for cows, sheep and green pastures.
• The early Vedic Janas later coalesced into the Janapadas.
• The term "Janapada" literally means the foothold of a tribe. The fact that Janapada is derived from Jana points to an early stage of land-taking by the Jana tribe for a settled way of life.
• Permanent settlement in a particular area gave a geographical identity to a tribe or a group of tribes. This identity was given concrete shape in the possession of the area, which was generally named after the tribe.
• This process of first settlement on land had completed its final stage prior to the times of the Buddha and Paigni.
• Pre-Buddhist north-west region of the Indian sub-continent was divided into several Janapadas demarcated from each other by boundaries.
• In Panini's writing, Janapada stands for country and Janapadin for its citizenry.
• Each of these Janapadas was named after the tribe (or the Jana) who had settled therein. To maintain this possession required political organization, either as a republic or a monarchy.

Formation of States: Mahajanapadas (Monarchies and Republics)

• Defined by Kautilya in his Saptanga theory (in Arthasastra) a state was characterized by 7 principles.
• SaptangPrinciples: The king, the minister, the country, the fortified city, the treasury, the army and the ally are constituent elements of the state.
• No state formation satisfied all these 7 aspects till the end of 6th century BC.
• From the 6th century B.C. onwards, the widespread use of iron in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Western Bihar, as evident from excavations at Rajghat and Chirand, led to the formation of large territorial states which were better equipped militarily and in which warrior class played the main role.
• New agricultural tools and implements enabled the peasants to produce a good amount of surplus which not only met the needs of the ruling class but also supported numerous towns.
• Towns came into existence as centres of industry and trade. Some such as Shravasti, Champa, Rajagriha, Ayodhya, Kausambi, Kashi and Pataliputra were of substantial importance to the economy of the Ganges plains. Others such as Vaishali, Ujjain, Taxila and the port of Bharukachchha (Broach) had a wider economic reach.
• A passage from Panini, makes it clear that the people owed their allegiance to the Janapada (territory) to which they belonged and not to the Jana or the tribe to which they belonged.
• In the post-Vedic period, the entire northern territory mostly situated north of the Vindhyas and extending from the North-West frontier to Bihar was divided into sixteen states called Sodasha Mahajanapadas.
• These Mahajanapadas were either monarchical or republican in character.
• The Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (Solasa Mahajanapadas) which were in existence before the time of Buddha.
• They do not give any connected history except in the case of Magadha.
• According to Buddhist texts, fourteen of the Mahajanapadas belong to Majjhimadesa (Mid India) while the two (Gandhara and Khamboja) belong to Uttarapatha or the north-west division of Jambudvipa.

Sodasha Mahajanapadas — The Sixteen Mahajanapadas

• The Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, at several places, gives a list of sixteen great nations:

Anga

• The capital city of Anga mahajanapad (around modern Bhagalpur and Munger districts in Bihar) was Champa. 
• Magadh was on its west and Raja Mahal hills on the east. 
• It was a great center of trade and commerce and its merchants regularly sailed to distant Suvarnabhumi.
• Anga was annexed by Magadha in the time of Bimbisara. This was the one and only conquest of Bimbisara.

Assaka

• The capital of the Assakas was Potana or Potali or Podana (in modern Maharashtra).
• Assaka or the Ashmaka was located in Dakshinapatha or southern India.
• In Buddha's time, the Assakas were located on the banks of the river Godavari (only Mahajanapada south of the Vindhya Mountains).
• The Ashmakas are also mentioned by Panini.

Avanti

• The country of the Avantis was an important kingdom of western India and was one of the four great monarchies in India in the post era of Mahavira and Buddha.
• The other three being Kosala, Vatsa and Magadha. 
• Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa, Nimar and adjoining parts of the Madhya Pradesh.
• Avanti was divided into north and south by the riverVetravati.
• Initially, Mahissati (Sanskrit Mahishamati) was the capital of Southern Avanti, and Ujjaini (Sanskrit: Ujjayini) was of northern Avanti, but at the times of Mahavira and Buddha, Ujjaini was the capital of integrated Avanti. 
• Both Mahishmati and Ujjaini stood on the southern high road called Dakshinapathawhich extended from Rajagriha to Pratishthana (modern Paithan).
• Avanti was an important center of Buddhism and some of the leading 'theras' and 'theris' were born and resided there. 
• Pradyota dynasty ruled over Avanti.
• Pradyota was contemporary to Gautama Buddha.
• Ajatashatru, the king of Magadha fortified Rajagriha to protect it from an invasion led by Pradyota.
• Pradyota also waged war on Pushkarasarin, king of Takshashila.
• Pradyota's chief queen was a disciple of Buddhist monk Mahakatyayana and constructed a stupa in Ujjayini.
• Last King Nandivardhana of Avanti was defeated by king Shishunaga of Magadha.
• Avanti later became part of the Magadhan empire.

Chedi

• The Chedis, Chetis or Chetyaslay in eastern Bundelkhand near Yamuna midway between the kingdom of Kurus and Vatsas. 
• Sotthivati or Suktimati of Mahabharata was the capital of Chedi.
• Shisupala was a Chei ruler and enemy of Krishna.
• Slaying of Shisupala becaame the central theeme of a log poem by a poet Magha.
• A branch of Chedis founded a royal dynasty in the kingdom of Kalinga according to the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela.

Gandhara

• Its capital was Taxila. Another main city was Pushkalavati
• It covered the regions between Kabul and Rawalipindi in North Western Provinces, Peshawar, the Potohar plateau and on the Kabul River. 
• The Taxila University was a renowned center of learning in ancient times, where scholars from all over the world came to seek higher education.
• Puini, the Indian genius of grammar and Kautiliya are the world renowned products of Taxila University.
• King Pukkusati or Pushkarasarin of Gandhara in the middle of the sixth century BC was the contemporary of king Bimbisara of Magadha.
• Gandhara was located on Uttarapatha and was a centre of international commercial activities.
• It was an important channel of communication with ancient Iran and CentralAsia.  Gandhara was often linked politically with the neighboring regions of Kashmir and Kamboja.

Kamboja

•  Its capital Rajpur (modern Rajouri).
• It was located around Punchh area of Kashmir. 
• Kambojas are also included in the Uttarapatha. Ancient Kamboja is known to have comprised regions on either side of the Hindukush. 
• The Mahabharata refers to several Ganas (or Republics) of the Kambojas.
• Kautiliya's Arthashastra and Ashoka's Edict No. XIII also attest that the Kambojas followed republican constitution.
• Panini's Sutras, though tend to convey that the Kamboja was a Kshatriya monarchy, but "the special rule and the exceptional form of derivative" he gives to denote the ruler of the Kambojas implies that the king of Kamboja was a titular head only.
•  In a struggle for supremacy that followed in the sixth/fifth century BC, the growing state of the Magadhas emerged as the most predominant power in ancient India, annexing several of the Janapadas of the Majjhimadesa(Madhyadesa).
• Puranas laments that Magadhan emperor Mahapadma Nanda exterminated all Kshatriyas, none worthy of the name Kshatrya being left thereafter.
• This obviously refers to the Kasis, Kosalas, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas and other tribes of the east Panjab.
• The Kambojans and Gandharans, however, never came into direct contact with the Magadhan state until Chandragupta and Kautiliya arose on the scene.
• But these nations also fell prey to the Achaemenids of Persia during the reign of Cyrus (558-530 BC) or in the first year of Darius.
• Kamboja and Gandhara formed the twentieth and richest strapy of the Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus I is said to have destroyed the famous Kamboja city called Kapisi (modern Begram).

Kashi

• The kingdom was located in the region around its capital Varanasi, bounded by the Varuna and Asi rivers in the north and south which gave Varanasi its name.
• Before Buddha, Kasi was the most powerful of the sixteen Mahajanapadas.
• Several jataka tales bear witness to the superiority of its capital over other cities in India and speak highly of its prosperity and opulence.
•  These stories tell of the long struggle for supremacy between Kashi and the three kingdoms of Kosala, Anga and Magadha. 
• Kashi emerged as a leading textile manufacture in the time of Buddha, the Kashya, orange brown robes of Buddhist monk are said to be manufactured here. 
• Although King Brihadratha of Kashi conquered Kosala, Kashi was later incorporated into Kosala during Buddha's time. 
• The Matsya Purana and Alberuni spell Kashi as Kausika and Kaushaka respectively.
• All other ancient texts read Kashi. 
• According to Dasaratha jataka (one of the Buddhist birth stories), Ram was brother and husband of Sita was king of Kashi (not Ayodhya).

Kosala

•  Kosala was located to the north-west of Magadha, with its capital at Savatthi (Sravasti), about 60  miles north of modern Ayodhya in the Sahet-Mahet region.
• Its territory corresponded to the  modern Awadh (or Oudh) in Central and Eastern Uttar Pradesh.  
• It had the river Ganges for its southern, the river Gandak (Narayani) for its eastern, and the Himalaya mountains for its northern boundary.  Lord Rama was a king in this dynasty.
• Other great kings were Prithu, Harishchandra, Dilip, who  find mention in different Puranas, Ramayan, and Mahabharat.
• Later, the kingdom was ruled by the famous king Prasenjit during the era of Mahavira and Buddha. 
• King Prasenjit was highly educated. His position was further improved by a matrimonial alliance  with Magadha: his sister was married to Bindhusara and part of Kashi was given as dowry. 
• There was, however, a struggle for supremacy between king Prasenjit and king Ajatasatru of  Magadha which was finally settled once the confederation of Lichchavis became aligned with  Magadha.
• Kosala was ultimately merged into Magadha when Vidudabha was Kosala's ruler. 
• Ayodhya, Saketa, Banaras, and Sravasti were the chief cities of Kosala.

Kuru

• Kurus roughly corresponded to the modern Thanesar, state of Delhi and Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh.
• According to the Jatakas, the capital of the Kurus was Indraprastha (Indapatta) near modern Delhi. 
• At Buddha's time, the Kuru country was ruled by a titular chieftain (king consul) named Korayvya.
• The Kurus of the Buddhist period did not occupy the same position as they did in the Vedic period.
• The Kurus had matrimonial relations with the Yadavas, the Bhojas, Trigrata s and the Panchalas.
• Though a well known monarchical people in the earlier period, the Kurus are known to have switched to a republican form of government during the sixth to fifth centuries BC.
• In the fourth century BC, Kautiliya's Arthashastra also attests the Kurus following the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul) constitution.

Magadha

• The Magadha was one of the most prominent and prosperous of mahajanapadas.
• The capital city Pataliputra( Patna, Bihar) was situated on the confluence of major rivers like Ganga, Son, Punpun and Gandak.
• The alluvial plains of this region and its proximity to the iron rich areas of Bihar and Jharkhand helped the kingdom to develop good quality weapons and support the agrarian economy.
• These factors helped Magadha to emerge as the most prosperous state of that period.
• The kingdom of the Magadhas roughly corresponded to the modern districts of Patna and Gaya in southern Bihar and parts of Bengal in the east.
• During Buddha's time its boundaries included Anga. 
• Its earliest capital was Girivraja or Rajagaha (modern Rajgir in Bihar).
• The other names for the city were Magadhapura.
• Brihadrathapura, Vasumati, Kushagrapura and Bimbisarapuri. It was an active center of Jainism in ancient times.
• The first Buddhist Council was held in Rajagaha in the Vaibhara Hills. Later on, Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha.

Malla

• The Mallas are frequently mentioned in Buddhist and Jain works.
• During the Buddhist period, the Mallas/Malls Kshatriya were republican people with their dominion consisting of nine territories corresponding to the nine confederated clans.
• These republican states were known as Gana.
• Two of these confederations — one with Kusinara (modern Kasia near Gorakhpur) as its capital and the second with Pava (modern Padrauna, 12 miles from Kasia) as the capital — had become very important at the time of Buddha.
• Kusinara and Pava are very important in the history of Buddhism and Jainism since Buddha and Lord Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara took their last breath at Kushinara and Pava/Pavapuri respectively.
• The Mallas originally had a monarchical form of government but later they switched to one ot Samgha (republic).
• The members of which called themselves rajas. 
• The Mallas appeared to have formed an alliance with the Licchhavis for self-defense but lost their independence not long after Buddha's death and their dominions were annexed to the Magadhan empire. 
• Malla along with other Sanghiya kshtriyas like the Licchhavis, Koliyas and Shakya were ruling from their Santhagara, which was like an assembly hall.
• These Santhagara kshatriyas were placed below Vedic kshtriyas in the social hierarchy.

Matsya

• Matsya or Machcha tribe lay to the south of the Kurus and west of the Yamuna, which separated them from the Panchalas.
• It roughly corresponded to the former state of Jaipur-Alwar-Bharatpur region of Rajasthan.
• It was suitable for cattle rearing. The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagara (modern Bairat) which is said to have been named after its founder king Virata.
• In Pali literature, the Matsyas are usually associated with the Surasenas.
• The Matsyas had not much political importance of their own during the time of Buddha.
• King Sujata ruled over both the Chedis and Matsyas, thus showing that Matsya once formed a part of the Chedi kingdom.

Panchala

• The Panchalas occupied the country to the east of the Kurus between the mountains and river Ganges.
• It roughly corresponded to modern Budaun, Farrukhabad and the adjoining districts of Uttar Pradesh. 
• It was divided into Uttara-Panchala and Dakshina-Panchala.
• The northern Panchala had its capital at Adhichhatra or Chhatravati (modern Ramnagar in the Bareilly District), while southern Panchala had it capital at Kampilya or Kampil in Farrukhabad District.
• The famous city of Kanyakubja or Kanauj was situated in the kingdom of Panchala. 
• Originally a monarchical clan, the Panchals appear to have switched to republican corporation in the sixth and fifth centuries BC.
• In the fourth century BC, Kautiliya's Arthashastra also attests the Panchalas as following the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul) constitution.

Surasena

• Surasenas lay to the east of Matsya and west of Yamuna.
• This corresponds roughly to the Brij region  of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gwalior region of Madhya Pradesh.
• It had its capital  at Madhura or Mathura.
• Avantiputra, the king of Surasena was the first among the chief disciples of Buddha, through whose help Buddhism gained ground in Mathura country.
• In Kautiliya's Arthashastra, the Vrishnis are described as samgha or republic.
• The Vrishnis, Andhakas and other allied tribes of the Yadavas formed a samgha and Vasudeva (Krishna) is described as the samgha-mukhya.  Mathura, the capital of Surasena was also known at the time of Megasthenese as the centre of Krishna worship.
• The Surasena kingdom had lost its independence on annexation by the Magadhan empire.

Vajji or Vrijjis

• The Vajjians included eight confederated clans (with 7707 Rajas) of whom the Licchhavis, the Videhans,  the Jnatrikas and the Vajjis were the most important. Mithila (modern Janakpur in district of Tirhut) was the capital of Videha and became the predominant center of the political and cultural activities of northern India. It was in the time of king Janaka that Videha came into prominence. On the ruins of this kingdom arose the republics of the Licchhavis and Videhans and seven other small ones.
• The Licchavis were a very independent people. The mother of Mahavira was a Licchavi princess.  Vaishali (modern Basarh in North Bihar) was the capital of the Licchavis and the political  headquarters of the powerful Varijian confederacy. Vaishali was located 25 miles north of the river  Ganges and was a very prosperous town. The Second Buddhist Council was held at Vaishali. The  Licchavis were followers of Buddha. Buddha is said to have visited them on many occasions. They  were closely related by marriage to the Magadhas and one branch of the Licchavi dynasty ruled Nepal until the start of the Middle Ages.
• Vaishali, the headquarters of the powerful Vajji republic and the capital of the Licchavis was defeated by king Ajatasatru of Magadha. Around 600 BCE, the Licchavis were disciples of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. During their lifetimes, both Mahavira and Gautama Buddha visited Vaishali several times.

Vajji administration:

• Known as the Vajji Sangha (Vajji Confederation), Vajji consisted of several janapadas, gramas (villages) and gosthas (groups).
• The main gosthas were the Licchavis, Mallas and Sakyas.
• Eminent people were chosen from each khanda (district) as representatives to the Vajji gana parishad (people's council of Vajji).
• These representatives were called gana mukhyas.
• The chairman of the council was titled gana pramukha but often he was addressed as a king although his post was neither dynastic nor hereditary. 
• The other executives were the mahabaladhrikrita (a minister of internal security), the binishchayamatya or chief justice, dandadhikrita (other justices) etc.

Vamsa or Vatsa or Vachchas

• The Vatsas are stated to be an offshoot of the Kurus who had shifted from Hastinapur and settled down at Kaushambi.
• The Vatsa corresponded with the territory of modern Allahabad and Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh. 
• It had a monarchical form of government with its capital at Kausambi (identified with the village Kosam, 38 miles from Allahabad). 
• Kausambi was a very prosperous city where a large number of millionaire merchants resided.
• It was the most important entreport of goods and passengers from the north-west and south.
• Ujjain and Kaushambi were connected by a major trae route. 
• Udayana was the ruler of Vatsa in the sixth century BC, the time of Buddha.
• He was very powerful, warlike and fond of hunting.
• Initially king Udayana was opposed to Buddhism but later became a follower of Buddha and made Buddhism the state religion.