The Sultunate Period

• Qutubu-din Aibak was the founder of first independent Turkish kingdom in northern India which extended from North-West frontier to Bihar and Bengal in the east. This dynasty has also been classified in three groups.
• A)   The Qutbi dynasty (1206-11A.D.) founded by Qutub-uddin Aibak.
• B)   The first Illbari or Shamsi dynasty founded by Shamsuddin Iltutmish.
• C)   The second Illbari dynasty (1266-90 A.D.) founded by Ghiasuddin Balban.
• Qutub-ud-din was a Turk of the Aibek tribe which in Turkish language means “Lord of the moon”.
• Qutub-ud-din assumed reigns of Government as independent ruler of Lahore. He constructed two mosque “Quwat-ul—Islam” at Delhi and Adahai din ka Jhopara” at Ajmer. He also began the construction of Qutubminar.
• He found the first of so-called seven cities of medieval India.
• Aibak was great patron of learning and he patronized writer like Hasan-un-Nijami who was the author of “Ta-ul-Massir” and Fakhr-ud-Din the author of “Tarikh-I-mubarak shahi”.
• Aibak has been given the title of ‘LAKH BAKSHA’ or ‘giver of lakhs’.
• He died while playing “shagun” ( polo game).

Iltutmish (1210-1236)

• Qutub-ud-din was succeeded by his inexperienced son Aram Shah who rulled at Lahore for about 8 months. He was deposed by Iltutmish.
• He belonged to Ilbari tribe of Turks. Iltutmish is a Turkish word which means “Saviour of the kingdom”. Alamgir and Jhangir mean the same.
• Itlutmish was the real founder of the Delhi Sultant. He made Delhi the capital in place of Lahore.
• Chengiz Khan, the Mangol leader threatened to attack the infant empire but Iltutmish saved it by refusing to give shelter to Khwarijim Shah whom Chengiz was chasing.
• He completed the construction of famous Qutub Minar (1231-32A.D.) in honour of famous Sufi saint Khawaja Qutub-ud-din Bhaktiyar Kaki.
• He issued “tanka jittal” as a token currency. He further organized the Iqtas, the civil administration and army which was now centrally paid and recruited.
• On his coins, Iltutmish describe himself as the lieutenant of Khalifa.
• Iltutmish set up an official nobility of slaves known as “Chahalgani” or the corps of forty.
• Minaj-us-siraj the author of “Tabaqat-I-nasiri” was patronized by Iltutmish. Awfi wrote Jawami-ul-Hikayat during his reign.

Raizya sultan (1236-40)

• Iltutmish had nominated his daughter Raziya but nobles of court disregarded his wishes and placed Rukh-ud-din Firoz Shah on the throne. Through public support Raziya deposed Ruku-ud-din in 1236 A.D. and assumed the title of Sultan. She had popularity among the people but being a lady she was not acceptable to the theologians and the Shamsi nobles whose interference she did not like in State affairs. She offended the nobles by her preference for a abyssinian slave Jamal-ud-din Yakut.
• Soon after her accession the Governors of Multan, Badaun, Hansi and Lahore openly revolted agaisnt her Wazir Muhammad Junaidi and some other nobles refused to have a women as their ruler. Their was a serious rebellion in Bhatinda. Malik Ikhtiar-ud-din Altunia, governor of Bhatinda refused to accept the Suzerainity of Raziya. Rajiya accompanied by Yakut marched agaisnt Altunia. On the way Turkish followers of Altunia murdered Yakut and imprisoned Rajiya. Raziya married Altunia to prevent the difficult situation and both of them marched toward Delhi. She finally became the victim of the conspiracy in 1240 A.D. and was assassinated near Kaithal (Haryana).

Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266-86)

• Raziya begum was followed by Muizuddin and Bahram and was succeeded by Ala-ud-din Masud Shah. They ruled for six years and were totally worthless. The struggle between the monarchy and Turkish chiefs continued till one of Turkish chief Ulugh Khan known in the history by the title of Balban gradually arrogated all powers to himself and finally ascended the throne in 1265 A.D.
• His greatest contribution to the stability of Sultunate was to ensure respect for kingly office. He broke the power of the forty i.e. ‘Chahalgani’.
• To keep himself well informed Balban appointed spies in every department. He also organized a strong centralized army both to deal with internal disturbances and to repel the Mongols who had entrenched themselves in Punjab and posed a serious danger to Delhi Sultnate. For this purose he organized the military department (Diwan-I-Arz).
• He was a stern ruler and his policy of administration was pitiless terrorism. But he had great sense of justice. When Malik Baqbuq, governor of Badaun, caused his servant to be beaten to death, Balban ordered Baqbaq to be publicly flogged. Haibat Khan, the governor of Avadh, was found guilty of killing a man while drunk. Balban ordered him to be flogged by 500 stripes and was handed over to the widow of victim. With utmost severity he put down Mewatis and revolt in Bengal by Tughril Khan.
• Balban’s conception of kingship was similar to that of the theory of divine rights of kings. He took up the title of ‘Zilli Illah’ or shahdow of god. He introduced ‘Sijda’ or prostration and ‘Paibos’ or kissing the feet of monarch in the court as the normal form of salutation for kings. He also introduced the system of ‘Nauroz’ to add to dignity of the court.
• Balban was succeeded by Kaiqubad the son of Bughra khan but he was murdered and Jalal-ud-din Khalji came to the power. Thus ended the so called Slave dynasty.
• Jarib: A system of assessment introduced by Murshid Quli Khan. The state-revenue was to be paid in kind, and was fixed per bigha on a uniform claim to one-fourth of the produce.

Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji (1290-1296 A.D.)

• He was the founder of Khalji dynasty. He believed in policy to rule without bloodshed or opperession.
• During the second year of his reign Jala-ud-din had to face the revolt of Malik Chhajju. He opposed Jalal-ud-din before he became the king but after his accession he submitted and was given the Jagir of Kara. Inspite of this Chaaju enterned into an alliance with Hatim, the governor of Awadh and revolted. Arkali Khan, son of Jalal-ud-din was, sent against Chhajju who was defeated and captured. Instead of punnishing them Sultan pardoned them and fed then from royal kitchen.
• However, there was one departure from his policy of liniency in case of Siddi Maula. The allegation was that a plot had been watched by a number of Amirs to murder the Sultan and put Siddi Maula on the throne. The plot was earthed and Siddi Maula and his followers were put to death.
• Mongols: India was attacked by Mongols during the reign of Jala-ud-din. Abdullah, grandson of Halaku attacked India in 1292. Jalal-ud-din went in person to oppose them and was successful in defeating them. The descendants of those Mongols who settled in Inda came to be known as new Musalmans.
• The most important event of his reign was the invasion of Devagiri in 1294 A.D. by his nephew and son-in-law Alauddin Khilji. By such expeditions Alauddin acquired enormous wealth and by distributing it freely turned the nobles to his side. Then he murdered Jalal-ud-din and captured the throne.

Allauddin khilji (1296-1316)

• Alauddin Khalji was the nephew of Jalal-ud-din Firoz. When Jallaluddin Khaliji became the Sultan, he gave Alauddin the fief of Kara in the district of Allahabad.
• The murder of Jala-ud-din did not put Ala ud din on the throne of Delhi. As soon as Malika Jahan learnt about the murder of her husband she put her younger son Qadir Khan Rukum ud din on the throne and called for her elder son Arkali Khan from Multan. Without wasting much time Alauddin marched toward Delhi and on 3rd October 1296 A.D. he was proclaimed the Sultan of Delhi.
• He took stern steps against ex-Jalali nobles who had betrayed their masters. He took their wealth back and got most of them beheaded. He established absolute control over all and revised Balban’s theory of kingship. He believed on theory that “Kingship knows no kinship and the word of king is law[1]”.
• He never applied for investitute nor regarded them as his political superior. Ulma’s were never allowed to interfere in state politics. But he successfully exploited Muslim fanaticism against Hindus. Anyway Alauddin was first among the Turkish Sultan of Delhi who separated religion from state politics.

Aims of Alauddin

• a)   Two found a new religion like Muhammad.
• b)   To go on world conquest like Alexander. He wanted to be called Sikander-I-Sani.
• It was Maik Ala-ul-mulk uncle of Ziaud-din barani who brought the Sultan to his sense by pointing out the impracticability of his wild aims.

Alauddin’s imperialism

• After successful repulsion of first Mongol attack on his dominion in 1297 A.D. he planned to conqueor Gujrat.
• Expedition to Gujrat (1298A.D.) – He sent army under Ulugh Khan (Almas Beg) from Sindh and Nusrat Khan from Delhi to Gujrat. The temple of Somnath that was rebuilt by Kamarpala after Ghaznis attack was again plundered. The king of Gujrat Karan Deva II fled to South. This victory is important for two reasons.
• (a)  He married Kamla Devi the wife of Karan Deva.
• (b)  He got Malik Kafur who rose to be a brilliant military general of Alauddin.
• Ranthambhor (1301) – At the time of Alaudin it was being ruled by Hamir Dev a Rajput chief. Two reasons have been given for invasions of Ranthambor. The first reason was that Hamir Deva had given shelter to some new Muslims and this offended Alauddin. another reason was that he considered it as his pious duty to recover a fortress that had once formed a part of the Sultanate of Delhi. He conquered Ranthambor after facing a strong resistance form Rajputs that lasted one year.
• Conquest of Mewar (1303 A.D.) Ratan Singh was the ruler with his capital at Chittor. The story of Padmani is associated with this conquest. Malwa was conquered in 1305 A.D. the last important expedition to Jalor, Alauddin sent an army against Raja Kama Dev under Gull-bihisht Begum a female servant of his palace.
• Conquest of Deccan (1307-14A.D.) – Four powerful kingdoms prevailed at the time of Alauddin campaigns.
• (a) Yadava kingdom ruled by Ramchandra Dev with capital at Devgiri.
• (b) Kakatiya kingdom with capital at Warrangal ruled by Pratap Rudra Dev II.
• (c) Hoysala ruled by Vir Ballalla III with capital at Dwarsamudrai
• (d) Pandya with capital at madurai ruled by Mara Varman Kulashkra.
• Malik Kafur led these campaigns in South India. The pretext for this invasion was that Ramchandra Deva the ruler of Devgiri had given shelter to Karan Dev the enemy of Alauddin.
• In 1309 A.D. Warrrangal was invaded and King Rai Pratap Rudra was defeated. Kohinoor was brought to Delhi from here.
• In 1311, Hoysala was invaded and plundered, Marching through Madurai, Malik Kafur went up to Rameshwaram and built one mosque there. Bihar, Bengal and Orissa did not constitute a part of his empire.

Encounter with Mongols

• Alauddin dealt with Mongols with iron hands. he personally marched against the Mongol leader Qutlugh Khawaja and defeated him. Even after this Mongols continued their raids but were held in check by Ghazi Malik, the governor of Punjab.

Administrative reforms

• He introduced the system of Dagh and chehra or the branding of horses and Huliah system or preparation of the descriptive role.
• Alauddin ordered that all land was to be measured and then the share of state was to be fixed. The post of special officer called Diwan –E - Mustakhraj was created for the purpose of collection of revenue.
• He ordered heavy taxation. The peasants had to pay half the produce as land revenue.
• All goods for sale were brought to an open market called the Sarai-Adl.
• Alauddin was fond of architecture. Many forts were built by himand the most important of them was Alai Fort or Koshak-I-Siri. He also constructed the Alai Darwaja the entrace gate to Qutub Minar. He also built the palace of thousand Pillars’ called ‘Hazar Situn’. The Jama Masjid was also built by him.
• Alauddin was great patron of learning. Amir Khusro was patronized by him. Amir Khsuro wrote Tarikh-I-Alai or Khazain-ul-Futuh. In this book he gave an account of conquest of Alauddin. He wrote another book called ‘Ashiqa’ which contains the love story of Deval Devi and Khizr Khan in his NUH-SPIH or nine skies, he gave the story of Sultan Mubarak Shah. He also lived in the court of Ghias-ud-din Tughluq and wrote Tughluqunama. Khusro is also known as Tuti-I-Hind or parrot of India. He also patronized Amir Hasan who is known as Sadi of India.
• Successor of Alauddin – he died in 1316. His death laid to usual scramble for power Malik Kafur seized the government. But he was soon murdered. He was followed by Mubarak. He left the conduct of Government under Hindu covert Khusrau Khan who murdered Mubarak and seized the throne. But he was overthrown by the governor of Punjab, Ghazi Khan Tughluk[2]. He was elected by the nobles to occupy the vacant throne and thus the Tughlak dynasty was established.
• Diwan-i-Riyasat and Shahana-i-Mandi: Were the controllers of Market, appointed by Ala-ud-din Khalji.

Ghiasuddin tughlak shah (1320-25 a.d.)

• He was one of the most reputed and experienced Alai nobles. After the murder of Mubarak Shah he entered Delhi to offer throne to the surviving male members of alai family but unfortunately no male heir was left alive. So nobles selcted him as their king.
• He built a strong fort called Tughluqabad near Delhi and strengthened defences of N.W. frontier to guard against the recurring Mongol invasion. he conquered Warangal and put down a revolt in Bengal. By 1324 Sultanate power reached up to Madurai. He died in 1325 A.D. after a fall from a high raised pavalion.

Muhammad bin tughluk (1324-1351 a.d.)

• He tired to introduce many administrative reforms. He had five ambitious projects for which he becomes particularly debatable.
• (1) Transfer of Capital (1326-27) A.D.: The most controversial step which Muhammad Tughluq undertook soon after his accession was the so called transfer of capital from Delhi to Deogir. Deogir had been a base for the expansion of Turkish rule in South India. It appears that the Sultan wanted to make Deogir second capital so that he might be able to control south India better. Deogir was thus named Daulatabad. After a couple of year       Muhammad Tugluq decided to abandon Daulatabed largely because he soon found that just as he could not control South India from Delhi, he could not control North from Daulatabad.
• Introduction of Token Currency (1330-32) A.D.: There was shortage of silver in the world in 14th century Moreover Kublai Khan of China, a Mongol ruler of Iran and Ghazan Khan had successfully experimented with it. Muhammad Tugluq decided to introduce a bronze coin which was to have same value as the silver tanka.?Muhammad Tugluq might still have been successful if the government had been able to prevent people from forgining new coin. The government was not able to do so and soon the new coins began to be greatly devalued in markets. Finally Muhammad Tughlaq decided to withdraw the token currency. He promised to exchange silver pieces for bronze coins.
• (3) Taxation in the Doab (1333-34) A.D.: The Sultan made an ill-advised financial experiment in the Doab between the Ganges and Jamuna. He not only increased the rate of taxation but also revived and created some additional Abwabs or cessess. Although the share of the state remained half as in time of Alauddin, it was fixed arbitrarily not on the basis of actual produce. Prices were also fixed artificially for comerting the produce into money. It is stated in Tarikh-I-Mubarak Shahi that the increase was twenty fold and to this were added Ghari or House Tax and the ‘Charahi’ or pasture tax. The Sultan created a new Department of Agriculture called Diwan-I-Kohi. The main object of this Department was to bring more land under cultivation by giving direct help to peasants.
• (4) Proposed Khurasani Expedition (1332-33 A.D.): The Sultan had a vision of universal conquest. He dicided to conquest Khursan and Iraq and mobilized a huge army for the purpose. He was encouraged to do so by Khurasani nobles who had taken shelter in his court. Moreover there was instability in Khurasan on account of the unpopular rule of Abu Said.
• (5) Quarachil expedition: Muhammad Tughlq intended to capture the mountains of Kaarajal. The expedition was launched in Kumaon hills in Himalayas allegedly to counter Chinese incursions. It also appears that the expedition was directed against some refractory tribes in Kumaon Gharwal region with the object of bringing them under Delhi Sultnate. The first attack was a success but when the rainy seaons set in, the invaders suffered terribly.
• His five projects had led to revolts all around his empire. His last days were spent in checking the revolts.
• Mongol invasion under the leadership of Tarmashirin Khan of Trans oxiana was the first and the last during the time of Muhammad Bin Tuglaq. He faced it very successfully.
• While on way during an expedition to recover Sindh he fell ill and died in 1351 A.D.

Firoz shah tughlaq (1351-1388)

• After his accession Firoz Tughlaq was faced with the problem of preventing the imminent break up of Delhi Sultunate. he adopted the policy of trying to appease the noble, the army and theologians and of asserting his authority over only such areas which could be easily administered from the center. He therefore made no attempt to re-assert his authority over South India and Deccan.
• He led two campaigns to Bengal but was unsuccessful in both. Bengal was thus lost to the Sultnate. Firoz led a campaign against the ruler of Jajnagar. He desecrated the temples there and gathered a rich plunder but made no attempt to annex Orissa. However, his longest conquest was to deal with rebellion in Gujarat and Thatta.
• Having failed in military carrier Firoz tried to appease the nobles and the army. He decreed that whenever a noble died his son should be allowed to succeed to his position including his Iqta and if he had no sons, his son-in-law and in his absence his slave.
• The new system of taxation was according to Quaran. Four kinds of taxes sanctioned by the Quran were imposed and those were Kharaj, Zakat, Jizya and Khams. Kharaj was the land tax which was equal to 1/10 of the produce of the land, Zakat was 21/2% tax on property, Jizya was levied on non-Muslims and Khams was 1/6 of the booty captured during war.
• In order to encourage agriculture, the Sultan paid a lot of attention to irrigation. Firoz repaired a number of canals. The first canal was from Sutlej to Ghaggar. The second canal carried the waters of Jamuna to the city of Hissar. The third canal started from neighbourhood of Mandhavi and Sirmour Hills and connected with Hansi. The fourth canal flowed from the Ghaggar by the fort of Sirsuti up to village of Hirani – Khera.
• He was a great builder, to his credit are cities of Fathabad, Hissar, Jaunapur and Firozabad. During his Bengal campaign he renamed Ikdala as Azadpur and Pandua as Firozabad. The two pillars of Asoka, one from Topra and another from Meerut were brought to Delhi.
• The Sultan established at Delhi, a hospital described variously as Dar-ul-shifa, Bimaristan and Shifa Khana. The chief architect of state was Malik Ghazi Shainan who was assisted in work by Abdul Haq.
• A new department of Diwan-I-Khairat was set up to make provisions for marriages of poor girls.
• However his rule is marked by peace and tranquility and credit for it goes to his Prime Minister Khan-I-Jahan Maqbul. Firoz Shad died in 1388 A.D. and wa succeeded by Tuglaqshah.

Officers

• Majis-i-Khalawat: A council of friends and trusted officers of the sultans. Bar-i-khas: A court in which the sultan received all courtiers, Khans, Maliks, and Amirs. Bar-i-Am: Here the Sultan sat as the Supreme judge.
• The Wazir had control over a number of departments, such as the
• Diwan-i-Risalat-Department of Appeals.
• Diwan-i-Insha-correspondence department.
• Diwan-i-Insha-correspondence department.
• Diwan-i-Bandgan-Department of slaves.
• Diwan-i-Qaza-i-Mamalik-Department of justice, intelligence and posts.
• Diwan-i-Amir Kohi-Department of Agriculture (created by Muhammad bin Tughluq).
• Diwan-i-istihqaq-Department of Pensions.
• Diwan-Khairat-Department of Charity (created by Firuz Shah).
• Diwan-i-Mustakharaj-Department to look after and realise arears from collectors and agents (created by Ala-ud-din Khalji).
• Mustaufi-i-Mamalik: Auditor General. Mushrif-i-Mamalik: In charge of accounts of receipts. Majumdar:  Preserved the record of loans advanced by government. Amir-i-Behr: Controller of Boats. Muhtasib: An officer of municipal police. Bakhshi i-Fauj: Paymaster of the Forces. Naib-i-Wazir-i-Wazir-i-Mamalik: Deputy Wazir. Qazi-ul-Qasat: Lord Chief Justice, aideby muftis to expound the law. Muhtasib: An officer of municiapl police.
• Shiqdars: Headed smaller units, jurisdiction did not extend over more than a few miles.
• Sarkar was placed under a Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran and a Munsif-i-Munsifan (to try civil cases)-Sher Shah’s reign.
• Criminal cases were disposed of by the Qazi and Mir-i-Adal in the parganas.-Sher Shah’s reign.
• Muhtasibs were the censors of Public morals in Mughal period. Under Delhi Sultanate they were officers of municiapl police.

Timur invasions (1398-99 a.d.)

• Timur invaded India in 1398 A.D. during the reign of Muhammad Tughlak. The raid into India was a plundering raid and its motive was to seize the wealth accumulated by the Sultans of Delhi over the last 200 years. He plundered Delhi and Tugluk Empire could not recover from such a terrible below and came to an end in 1412 A.D.

• Khizr Khan was not only the founder of the Sayyid Dynasty but also its ablest ruler. He was a Sayyid. He did not take up the title of king and contented himself with that of Rayat-I-Ala. The coins were struck and Khutba was read in name of Timur. There were only four rulers in this dynasty namely Khizr Khan, Mubarak Shah, Muhammad Shah and the last was Alauddin Alam Shah. Unable to cope with administrative problems and revolts he retired to his personal state in Baudaun. Taking advantage of this opportunity Bahlol Lodhi acquired control of Delhi in 1451 and found new dynasty called Lodhi Dynasty.

• Bahlol Lodhi was the founder of Lodhi dynasty. It was the first Afghan Dynasty of Delhi. Afghan monarchy was in fact a feudalistic tribal oligarchy. Bahlol Lodhi did not adopt aggressive policy toward the powerful neightbouring chiefs. However, he had to fight a long drawn war against Jaunpur which was ultimately conquered. He led a successful expedition against Gwalior.

Sikander lodhi (189-1517 a.d.)

• On Bahlol’s dealth his son Nizam Khan ascended the throne under the title Sikander Shah Lodhi. He conquered Bihar and Tirhut. He truansferred his capital from Delhi to Agra, a city founded by him. Sikander Shah was a fanatical Muslim and he broke the sacred images of the JawalamukhiTemple at Nagarkot and ordered the temples of Mathura to be destroyed.

Ibrahim lodhi

• The Afghan nobility was brave and freedom loving but it was because of its individualistic tendencies that the Afghan monarchy was weakened. Moreover, Ibraham Lodhi assereted the absolute power of the Sultan and insulted the Afghan nobles. Some of the nobles turned against him. At last Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of Punjab invited Babur to over throw Ibrahim. Babur accepted the offer and inflicted a crushing defeat on Ibraham in the first battle of Panipat in 1526 A.D. Ibrahim was killed in the battle and with him ended the Delhi Sultnate.

Causes of Downfal of Sultnate:

• War of succession as there was no fixed law for it.
• Defective military organization.
• Autocracy of Sultan which was disastrous under weak successors.
• Lack of popular support and indifference to public opinion.
• The wild projects of Muhammad Bin Tuglak.
• Vastness of empire and poor means of communication.
• Incompetence of Firoz TuglAk.
• Invasion of Timur

Administration, Economy and Social Life

• The Turkish Sultans in India declared themselves “Lieutenant of the faithful” i.e. of the Abbasid caliphat Baghdad and included his name in Khutba; it did not mean that the caliph became the legal ruler. The caliph had only a moral position.
• The Sultan’s office was the most important in the Sultnate and political, legal and military authority vested in him. He was responsible for administration and was also the commander-in-chief of the military forces. He was also responsible for the maintenance of law and justice. To discharge his functions he appointed judges.
• No clear law of succession developed among Muslim rulers. Thus military strength was the main factor in succession to the throne.

Central administration

• The key figure in the administration was Wazir. In the earlier period the wazirs were primarily military leaders but now he began to be considered more an expert in revenue affairs and presided over large department dealing both with income and expenditure.
• The most important department of state next to wazirs was the Diwani-I-Arz or the military department. The head of military department was called Ariz-I-Marmalik. The special responsibility of Ariz’s department was to recruit, equip and pay the army.
• There were other two important department of the state-the Diwan-I-Risalat and Diwan-I-Insha. The former dealt with religious matters, pious foundations and stipends to deserving scholar and men of piety. It was presided over by a chief Sadar or chief Qazi. The chief Qazi was the head of department of Justice. The Quazi dispensed civil law based on Muslim law (Sharia). The Hindus were governed by their own personal laws which were decided by panchayats in villages.
• The Diwan-I-Insha dealt with state correspondence.
• The rulers posted intelligence agents called Barids in different parts of empire to keep them informed of what was going on.
• Wakil-I-Dar was the officer responsible for different department such as maintenance of proper decorum at the court and he looked after the personal comfort of Sultan and the Karkhanas.

Local administration

• When the Turks conquered the country they divided it into number of tracts called Iqtas which were parceled among the leading Turkish nobles. The holder of the office were called Muqti or Walis. It was these tracts which later became province or Subas.
• Below the province were the Shiqs and below them the Paragana. We are told that the villages were grouped into units of 100 or 84 traditionally called Charurasi. The Paragana was headed by Amil. The most important people in villages were the Khuts (Landowners) or Muqaddam or headman. We also hear of village accountant called Patwari.

Architecture and Literature (Sultanate period)

• Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, Delhi-Qutub-ud-din Aibak.
• Arhai Din Da Jhopra – Ajmer – Qutib-ud-din Aibak.
• Qutub Minar – Iltutmish
• Alauddin Khilji was responsible for construction of Jamaat Khan Masjid at the Dargha of Nizamuddin Auliya and Alai Drawaza at Qutub. The other monuments at Delhi were city of Siri and the Hauzi-I-Alai or Hauzi-I-Khas tanki. He also constructed palace of thousand pillars called Hazar Situn.
• Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq founded the city of tughlaqabad.
• Muhammad Tuglaq founded the small fortreses of Adilabad and city of Jahanpanah.
• Firoz Shah Tuglq was responsible for the foundation of cities of Jaunpur, Fathehabad and Hisar Firuza. At Delhi he built the palace for of Firozabad.
• Another monument of Tughlaq period is tomb of Saint Kabir-ud-din Auliya. It is known as Lal Gumbad constructed by nasir-ud-din Mahmud Shah.
• The best example of architecture during the period of Sayyuid and Lodhi kings are tombs of kings and nobles, the most important among them are the tombs of Bare Khan and Chote Khan, the Bara gumbad, Shish Gumbad. The tomb of Shihad-ud-din Taj Khan, Dadi ka gumbad and Poti ka gumbad.

Bengal

• The Admin Masjid was constructed by Sikander Shah in new capital of Pandua.
• the Elhakhi tomb at Pandua is tomb of Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Shah.
• The Lothan Masjid was built by Yusuf Shah.
• The monuments of Husain Shah period are the Chota Sona Masjid, the Bara Sona Masjid and Qadam Rasul Mosque.
• Ahmad Shah founded the city of Ahmedabad.

Malwa

• There are two mosques at Dhar which were originally capital of Malwa. One mosque was oringnally a Sankrit college which was attached to Hindu temple, even now it is known as Bhoja Shala.
• The Jami Masjid and Hindola Mahal were built by Mahmud Khalji. he also constructed Jahaz mahal at Mandu.

Jaunpur

• The Atala Masjid was built the reign of Ibraham Shah sharqui. The site of Atala masjid was once the site of temple of Atala Devi. The jhanjhri masjid was erected by Ibraham in the of honour Hazrat Sayyad Sara Jahan Ajmali.
• Iltutmish was responsible for the construction of hauz-I-Shamsi, the Shamsi-Idgah and Jami Masjid at baudaun.
• Krishnadeva Raya built the hazaraTemple at Hampi.
• The fort of Kambhalgarh and Kirit Stambha of Rana Sangha are famous.
• The Tomb of Muhammad Adil Shah known as Gol Gumbaz has a peculiar style of its own.

Literature

• Khazyan-ul-Futun  : Amir Khusro
• Tughluq Nama      : Amir Khusro
• Tarik-I-Alai            : Amir Khusro
• Tabqat-I-Naisiri     : Minhaj-us-Siraj.
• Tarik-I-Firoz Shahi: Zia-ud-din Barni.
• Tarikh-I-Mubarak  : Ghulam
• Shahi                     :Yahiyabin Ahmad
• Gita Govind           : Jayadeva
• Sasttra Dipika        : Parthasarthi Misra
• Mitakshara             : Vighanes Vara
• Dayabhaga            : Jimuta Vahana.
• Nagachandra also known as Abinavapampa was the author of Pampa Ramayan.
• Alhakhanda           : Jagnayak (Deeds of love and war of Allha-udal).
• Hammir Rasau andHammirkasva: Sarangdhara.
• Ashiqa                   : Khusro
• Amuktamalyada    : Krishnadeva Raya
• Futuhat-I-Firozshahi : Firoz Shah.
• Prasana Raghava  : Jayadeva.
• Hamir-Meda-Mardana: Jay Singh Suri
• Pradyumnabhyadaya: Ravi Verman.
• Parvati Parinay  : Vaman Bhatta Bana
• Ganga Das Pratap Vilas : Gangadhara
• Lalit Madhava  : Rupagoswami
• Pratap Rudra Kalyan: Vidya Nath.
• Krishna Deva Raya’s poet laureate was Allasni Peddana, the author of Svarochisa Mancharitra

• A.D. 1221: Chingiz Khan (in the time of Iltutimish, Chingiz Khan returned from the Indian borders with out causing any destruction)
• 1241: Mongols came under Tair during the reign of Bahram Shah.
• 1245: Mongols advance upto uch.
• 1257: Mongols were defeated by Balban.
• 1292: The Mongol chief Abdulah (in the time of Jalalluddin Khalji) raided India.
• 1296: Zafar Khan Alauddin Khalji’s scommander, defeated the Mongols near Jullandhar.
• 1297: Qadr Khan and later Saldi advance innto India.
• 1200: The Mongol invasion led by Qutbugh Khwajah (Zafar Khan was killed).
• 1303: Mongols under Targhi invaded India (Alauddin Khalji took shelter in the fort of Siri).
• 1305: Mongols under Targhriraided India again.
• 1306: The came under the leadership of Kubak.
• 1307-8: The Mongols invaded under the leadership of Iqbalmand.
• 1328-29: Muhammad Tughluq persuaded Tarmashirin to retire.
• 1398: Timur crossed the Indus on September 20.

• With the establishment of the Mughal Empire  the rule of Delhi sultanate came to an end.  During more than 300 years of its rule the Delhi  sultanate went through various ups and downs  but survived as a political force. Here we would  like to discuss the major challenges the sultanate  faced. 

Attacks by Mongols and others 

• Since its inception the major threat to the  sultanate came in the form of Mongol invasions. 
• Mongols were nomadic groups who inhabited  the steppes north of China and east of Lake  Baikal.
• They formed a huge nomadic empire  under Chengiz Khan in the 12thcentury.
• From  13th century onwards they repeatedly attacked  the Delhi Sultanate.
• The Sultans as a policy  appeased them and also at times confronted.
• Balban and Allauddin Khalji confronted them  with full military might. During Khalji’s time  Mongols under Qultlug Khwaja even besieged  Delhi and caused a lot of damage.
• The last  significant attack of Mongols was by Tarmashirin  during the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq.
• A lot  of energy and resources of the Sultans were spent  in facing these invasions but they could not  destroy the sultanate.
• Another important attack which shook the  foundation of the sultanate was by Timur in  1398.
• The weakness of the Delhi Sultanate was  made even worse by Timur’s invasion of Delhi  (1398).
• Timur was a son of the Chief of Chagtai  branch of Turks.
• When he invaded India he was  the master of almost whole of Central Asia.
• Timur’s raid into India was a plundering raid  and his motive was to seize the wealth  accumulated by the Sultans of Delhi over the last  200 years.
• Sultan Nasiruddin and his Wazir  Mallu Iqbasl faced Timur but were defeated. 
• Timur entered Delhi and stayed for 15 days.
• He  ordered general massacre and large number of  Hindu and Muslim including women and  children were murdered.
• Before leaving India  Timur’s invasion indicated the downfall of Delhi  Sultanate. Delhi Sultanate lost control over  Punjab.
• Timur appointed Khizr Khan, the ruler  for Multan who controlled Punjab also.
• After the  fall of Tughlaq dynasty he occupied Delhi and  became the ruler of Delhi Sultanate.
• He laid the  foundation of Saiyyid Dynasty. 

Inner Conflict of Nobility 

• Three hundred years of Delhi Sultanate  witnessed five dynasties ruling over it.
• The main  reason for change of dynasties and deposing of  rulers was a constant struggle between the  Sultan and the nobility (Umara).
• Soon after the  death of Aibak they started fighting over the  question of succession.
• Finally Iltutimish emerged  victorious. Iltutimish created a group of loyal  nobles called Turkan-i-Chihiligani (‘The Forty’). 
• After the death of Iltutimish various factions of  the group of forty got involved in making their  favourite son/daughter as the sultan.
• In ten  years five sultans were changed. After that the  Sultan who occupied the throne (Nasiruddin  Mahmud) for 20 years hardly ruled and one of  the powerful noble Balban was defacto sultan. 
• The same Balban succeeded Nasiruddin after his  death.
• Almost similar events happened after the  death of each powerful sultan (Balban, Alauddin  Khalji, Firoz Tughlaq and others.)
• Since there  was no well defined law of succession each noble  tried to either crown himself or support some  favourite heir of the dead sultan.
• Finally Afghans  replaced the Turks as sultan with the accession  of Bahlol Lodi. 

Provincial Kingdoms 

• Another consequence of this conflict was  declaration of independence by various  provincial heads in the regions.
• As a result a  number of independent Afghan and Turkish  kingdoms emerged.
• Important ones of such  states were Bengal (Lakhnouti), Jaunpur, Malwa,  Gujarat, the Bahmani kingdom in the Deccan  etc.
• Quite often these states were at war with  the Sultanate. The whole process weakened the  sultanate. 

Resistance by Indian Chiefs 

• The sultans had to face the resistance from  Indian chiefs at regular intervals.
• The Rajput  chiefs in Rajputana (Mewar, Ranthambhor,  Chittor etc.), Warangal, Deogiri & Ma’bar in  Deccan and South, the king of Dhar, Malwa in  Central India, Jajnagar in Orissa and a host of  smaller chieftains were constantly at war even  after successive defeats.
• All these struggles  weakened the sultanate. 
• The Delhi sultanate was considerably  weakened after the Khalji and Tughlaq reign. 
• Finally the invasion of Babur in AD 1526 brought  it to an end.
• Now a much more centralised and  strong empire under the Mughals established  itself in India and ruled for a further period of  more than two hundred years.
• We will discuss  it in our next lesson on the Mughal Rule.

But  before moving to the Mughals we provide you a  brief account of the provincial kingdoms.