Aryans and The Age of Rigveda

• Originally, the Aryans seem to have lived some where is steppes stretching from southern Russia to central Russia. Then consensus of opinion is that originally they lived some where in the East of Alps.
• On their way to India the Aryans first appeared in Iran (Persia) and a little latter that 1500 B.C. the Aryans appeared in India.
• Rigveda is the earliest specimen of Indo-European language which for the first time said about Aryans in India.
• Rigveda is divided into 10 Mandalas. Books II to VII form its earliest portion and Book I, VIII and X seem to be latest addition.
• The Rigveda has many things in common with the Avesta which is oldest text in Iranian language.
• Kassite Inscription of about 1600 B.C. and Mittanni Inscription of 1400 B.C. found in Iraq bear some Aryan names which suggest that from Iran a branch of Aryans moved toward west.
• According to Rigveda early Aryans first settled in India in the region called ‘SAPTASINDHVA’ or land of seven rivers covered by the area of eastern Afghanistan, Punjab and fringes of western U.P.
• Some rivers of Afghanistan such as river Khubha and river Indus and its five branches – Ravi (Parushni) Beas (Vipas), Chenab (Asikini), Sutlej (Shutdhuri) and Jhelam (Vitasta) are clearly mentioned in Rig Veda.
• The Sindhu indentical with Indus is a important river for Aryans and is repeatedly mentioned.
• Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati and Saryu and some other river are also mentioned. Ganga is mentioned once and Yamuna thrice.
• Sarasawati was the holiest and mighty river visible at one place and invisible at other.
• In Rig Veda, Indra is called ‘Purandara’ which means ‘Destroyer of Fgrts’.
• The Aryans succeeded everywhere because they possessed chariots driven by horse. The Aryan soliders were also equipped with courts of mail (Varman) betterarms.
• The Aryans were engaged in two types of conflict. First, they fought with pre-Aryans and secondly, they fought among themselves.
• They initially came into conflict with indigenous inhabitants called Dasas and Dasyus. The Dasas are also mentioned in Ancient Iranian literature and so Dasas seems to have been a branch of early Aryans.
• The Dasyus in Rig Veda represent the original inhabitants of the country and an Aryan chief who empowered them was called ‘Trasadasyu’.
• The Aryan chief was soft toward the Dasas but strongly hostile to Dasyus. The term Dashyu Haya or Slaughter of Dasyus is repeatedly mentioned in Rig Veda.
• The Dasyus were probably ‘Pani’, a term mentioned in Rig Veda to denote non-Aryans who lifted the cattle of Aryans and probably were phallus worshippers.
• Intra-tribal conflict also rocked the Aryan communities for long. Divided into five tirbes called ‘Panchajana’ the Aryans faught among themselves.
• The Bharata and Tritsu were ruling Aryan clans and they were supported by priest Vashista.

Battle of Ten Kings

• A battle was fought between Bhartas on one hand and host of ten chiefs on other, knows as ‘Battle of Ten Kings’.
• To one group belong ‘Srinjayas and Bharatas’ and other belonged the (a) Purus (b) Yadavs (c) Anus (d) Turvasa (e) Drahyurs who were in alliance with five minor tribes, namely (a) Alina (b) Pakhatas (c) Bhalnas (d) Siva (e) Vishanini.
• The cause of conflict was division of Ravi water and so, the battle was fought on the banks of River Parushini (Ravi)
• The war ended with the victory of Bharatas led by Sudas and defeated side was led by king Puruktsa.
• The Purus were most important of ten tribes. So, the Bharatas joined hands with Purus and formed a new tribe called Kurus.
• They occupied Delhi and upper portion of Doab and called the area ‘Kurukshetra’.

Rig vedic polity

• Monarchy was the prevailing form of government in Rig Vedic times. The administrative machinery of Aryans in Rig Vedic period worked with tribal chief at the centre because of his successful leadership. He was called Rajan.
• The King was the protector of the tribe called ‘Jana’ mentioned 275 times. The term Janapada is not mentioned at all and the term Rajya occurs only once.
• Primarily a military leader the King fought for cows and not for territories.
• however, Rajan did not exercise unlimited power for he had to reckon with tribal organization. There are traces of election for king by a tribal assembly called ‘Samiti’.

Assemblies

• Important tribal Assemblies were Sabha, Samiti. Vidhata and Gana. They exercised deliverative, military and religious function.
• The two most important Assemblies were Sabha and Samiti. Samiti was seneral Aassembly and less exclusive than Sabha.
• Women attended ‘Sabha’ and ‘Vidhata’ in Rig Vedic times.

Administrative officers

• Purohita-Chief priest, most important functionaries.
• Senani-The leader of the army.
• Vrajapati-Officer who enjoyed authority over pasture ground.
• Kulapas-Head of families led by Vrajapati.
• Gramini-Head of fighting hordes under Vrajapati, later on became the head of village.
• There was no officer for tax collection, nor we do hear of any officer for administering justice.
• Spies called ‘spasa’s were employed to watch over unsocial activities like theft and burglary.
• The chief received from people voluntary offering called ‘Bali’. Presents and sports of war were distributed in some vedic assemblies.

Material life (economy)

• The Rig Vedic Aryans were semi-nomadic people with mixed pastoral and agricultural economy in which catle rearing played a predominant role.
• The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of agricultural ploughshare is mentioned in early part of Rig Veda and this was possibly made up of wood.
• They were acquainted with sowing, harvesting, threshing and knew about different seasons.
• Their staple cro was ‘yava’ (barley).
• However, Rig Vedic people were predominantly pastoral people. The cow seems to be most important form of wealth. There are so many references to cow in Rig Veda (176 times - ‘Gav’).
• Most of their wars were fought for cow. The term for war in Rig Veda is ‘Gavishthi’ or search for wars.
• Duhitri - A word for daughter which literarly meant milker of cow.
• Aghanya -Cow not to be killed but this may only imply its economic importance.
• Goghana -guests were also called Goghana as beef was offered to them.
• The gift made to priest usually consists of cows and women slaves and never of land.
• Rig Veda mentions about many artisans such as carpenter, chariot maker, weaver, leather worker, potter etc. which confirms about practice of all crafts.
• The term ‘Ayas’ used for copper or bronze shows metal-work was known.
• Rig Vedic Aryans were not traders because we do not get any clear evidence of trade activities. The Vedic people were also not acquainted with sea or ocean because the word ‘Samudra’ mentioned in Rig Veda maintly denotes collection of water.

Rig vedic society

• Based on kinship the early Aryan society was essentially tribal and egalitarian.
• People owe their primary loyalty to the tribe which was called Jana (275 times in Rig Veda).
• Another important term which stands for tribe in Rig Veda is ‘Vis’ (170 times) The most numerous Varna of Vaishya arose out of vis.
• The ‘Vis’ was divided into Gramma, a smaller tribal unit meant for fighting.
• The term for family ‘Kula’ is mentioned rarely in Rig Veda. Family was rather indicated with the term ‘Griha’.
• The family was a large jointed unit and it was essentially patriarchal.
• The birth of the son was desired. People prayed for brave sons to fight wars.
• In Rig Veda no desire is expressed for daughter.
• The position of women was respectable. There are no examples of child marriage and the marriageable age in Rig Veda seems to have been 16 to 17 years.
• Women could attend assemblies and could take part in sacrifice along with their husband.
• We also get evidence of widow remarriage and practice of Niyoga (lerivate) in which a childless widow would co-habit with her brother-in-law until the birth of a son.
• The institution of marriage was established. However, we have some indications of polyandry.

Social divisions

• The word ‘Varna’ used for colour gave the origin of the four classes from the contact of Aryans of fair complexion with the indigenous people of dark complexion.
• The factor which contributed most to the creation of social division was the conquest of indigineous inhabitants by the Aryans.
• Quadruple division of society made its formal appearance only at one place in X Mandal of Rig Veda i.e. Purushsukta hymn.
• Slaves were given as a gift to the priests. They  were mainly women slaves employed for domestic purposes.
• During this period slaves were not used directly in agriculture or other production activities.

Rig vedic religion

• The dominant mode of worshipping the gods was through the recitation of prayers and offering of sacrifies.
• The Rig Vedic people did not worshipping the gods was through the recitation of prayers and offering of sacrifices.
• The Rig Vedic people did not worship god for their spritual upliftment or for ending the misery of existence. They mainly asked for praja, pashu, food, wealth, health etc.
• An important charecteristic of Vedic mythology is the pre-dominance of male diety. Female diety occupied subordinate position.

Rigvedic gods

Indra

• Most important Rig Vedic deity in called Purandhar or destroyer of forts.
• 250 hymns devoted to him.
• Indra played the role of warlord and weather god.
• He was rain god (prajanya) and thought to be responsible for causing rainfall.
• He was associated with storm and thunder and like Zeus and Thor his hand bore the thunderbolt (Vajra) with which he destroys his enemies.
• He was rowdy, amoral deity, fond of feast and drinking.

Agni

• The second positon is held by Agni to whom 200 hyms are devoted.
• he acts as intermediary between god and men.
• He dwelt in heaven, in the form of lightning and on earth in many forms.
• He was the god of purity.
• He was the god of priest for he dwelt with him at fire sacrifice.
• He was the god of home for he dwelt in domestic hearth.

Varuna

• The third position is occupied by Varuna who personified water.
• He is the lord of ocean and floods.
• He was supposed to uphold the natural order ‘Rita’, and whatever happened in the world was thought to be reflection of his desires.
• He was the foremost king. A mighty emperor sitting in a great palace in the heaven often surrounded by gods.
• Among the Aryan gods, Varuna was ethically the highest.
• His worship given the earliest sign of Bhakti.

Soma

• Was considered to be god of plant and an intoxicating drink is named after him.
• Indians connected the growth of the plant with the moon with which the soma, the king of plant was later identified.
• All hymns in his honour are placed in the IX Mandal of Rig Veda.
• he is special god of Brahamans who referred to him as their king or patron deity.

Yama

• Lord of Dead was a sort of Adam, the first man to die who because guardian of the world of the fathers.

Rudra (the howler)

• He resembled the Greek god, Appolo.
• Like Indra he is also associated with storm.
• He was guardian of healing herb.

Demi gods

• Maruts-personified storm.
• Mitra-Solar deities.
• Ribhus-Gnomers who worked in Metal.
• Gandharva-Divine Musician.
• Apsaras-Mistress of god.
• Vishvadevas-Intermediary deity

Female diety

• Usha-Goddess of dawn.
• Aditi-Mother of Gods.
• Prithivi -Earth goddess.
• Aryani-Forest goddess
• Sarasvati-River deity.

• This age is also called Painted Grey Ware (PGW) phase.
• The history of this period is based on later Vedic texts which include Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, Brahmanas, Aryankas and Upanishads.
• During the later Vedic phase the Aryans have thoroughly subdued the fertile plains watered by Yamuna, upper Ganga and Sadnira. They also crossed Vindhyas and established their kingdome in Deccan to the north of Godawri.

Political organization

• In later vedic times popular assemblies lost importance and royal power increased at their cost.
• The ‘Vidhata’ completely disappeared. The Sabha and Samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed and they came to be dominated by chiefs and rich nobles.
• Women were not longer permitted to site in ‘Sabha’ and in was not dominated by nobles and brahamanas.
• The formation of wider kingdom made the king more powerful. Tribal authority tended to become territorial.
• The term ‘Rastra’ which indicates `territory’ first appears in this period.
• Traces of election appear in later vedic texts. The one who was considered best in physical and other qualities was elected Raja. he received voluntary presents called ‘Bali’ from his ordinary kins men or ‘vis’.
• Kingship was made hereditary and post generally went to eldest son.
• King’s influence was strengthened by rituals like:
• (1)  Rajsuya yajna – was the royal consecration ceremony which was to confer supreme power on king.
• (2)  Vajapeya  - drink of strength, was a charot race in which royal chariot was made to win against kinsmen.The ritual lasted for 17 days and was believed not only to restore the strength of middle aged king but to elevate him from Raja to Samrat
• Asvamedha – was a horse sacrifice which lasted for 3 days.?It was meant to claim unquestionable control over the areas in which royal horse roamed freely. Kings were known with different names in different region.
• Eastern King-Samrat
• Western King-Suvrat
• North King-Virat
• Southern King-Bhoja

Later vedic economy

• In eastern U.P. and Videha the earliest Iron implement belongs to 700 B.C. The word Shyama or Krishna, Ayas was used for Iron.
• Agriculture was the main source of livelihood of later vedic people. Ploughing was done with the help of wooden ploughshare.
• The Shatapatha Brahamana speaks at length about ploughing rituals.
• During later vedic period rice and wheat became the chief crops. For the first time vedic people came to be acquainted with rice in doab, it is called Virhi in vedic text and its remains have been discovered from Hastinapur belonging to 800 B.C.
• The later vedic period saw the rise of diverse crafts and arts.
• Weaving was confined to women but was practiced on large scale. Leatherwork, pottery and carpentery made a great progress.
• The latter vedic people were acquainted with four types of pottery:Black and Red ware, Black Slipped ware, Plain Grey ware
• Red ware  - was the most popular.
• However the most distinctive pottery of later vedic period was Painted Grey Ware.
• Various painted grey ware sites have been discovered in western U.P. and Delhi (Kuru – Parchola area) in Punjab and Haryana (Madra areas) and in Rajathan (Matasya area).
• Only few sites such as Hastinapur, Noh and Atranjikhera have been excavated.
• The Term ‘Nagara’ for cities is for first time mentioned in later vedic text, but only a faint beginning of town towards the end of later vedic period can be noticed.
• The Shatapata Brahama refers to sea (Arabian and Indian Ocean) and sea voyages.
• Shatapata Brahamana speaks first of money leading.

Social organization

• The later vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras.

Gotra

• The institution of gotra appeared in later vedic times.
• The original meaning of ‘gotra’ is cowshed or a herd of cow appeared in Rig Vedia.
• In Atharva Veda the word first appears meaning a clan.
• Gotra signified descent from a common ancestor. The were eight in numbers Kasyapa, Vasishta, Bhrigu, Gautam, Bharadwaj, Attri, Vishvamitra and Agastya.
• People began to gratice gotra exogamy.

Ashramas

• In post vedic times we hear of Ashramas that of Brahmachari or student, Grihsta or Householder, Vanaprastha or hermit, and Sanyasi or ascetic who completely renounced the wordly life.
• The Chhandogya Upanishad refers to first three ashramas – recluse is not given.
• The earliest clear reference to four Ashramas that of a student, householder, forest hermit and recluse is found in Jabala Upanishad.

Later vedic religion

• The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods Indra and Agni lost their former importance
• Prajapati, the creator god came to occupy the supreme position in later vedic pantheon.
• Rudra, the god of animals became more important and Vishnu came to be conceived as preserved and protector of people.
• Signs of idolatory appeared in later vedic period.
• As society came to be divided into social classes, some of the social order came to have their own duties. ‘Pushan’ who was supposed to look after cattle, came to be regarded as god of sudras.
• People worshipped god for the fulfillment of material desires. Prayers continued to be rectited but sacrifices became far more important and assumed bother public and domestic character.
• Towards the end of Vedic period began a strong reaction against a priestly domination, cults and rituals in lands of Panchalas and Videha where Upanishads were compiled in 600 B.C.
• The Upanishads criticized the rituals and laid stress on value of right belief and knowledge.
• They emphasized that knowledge of self (Atman) should be acquired and relation of Atman with Brahma (God) should be properly understood.
• Deeds of one life affected the next. This gave the theory of Karma.
• The later vedic period saw certain changes:
• Wars were fought not only for cow but also for territory.
• The society because agricultural, from a pastoral society of early Rig Vedic age.
• The tribal society broke up into a varna-divided society.
• No regular system of taxes and no professional army.
• Chiefs grew at the expense of tribal peasantry and handsomely awarded the priest who supported their patrons against the common people called Vaishyas.

• The word ‘veda’ is derived from Sanskrit root ‘Vid’ meaning ‘to know’ or knowledge par excellence.
• Vedic texts are Shruti (heard) which is distinct from Smriti (Remembrance).
• The four Vedas, brahamanas, Aryankas and Upanishads-all are Sruti.
• The Veda consists of Mantras,
• Brahmanas, Aryankas and Upanishads. Martres are distributed into Samhita-Rigveda,Samveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.
• Rigveda – it is foundation of all vedic literature, consists mainly of lyrics in prasise of different gods mainly Indra, Varuna and Agni.
• Contains 1028 Suktas, is divided into 10 Mandals or books.
• II to VII books are earliest and are also called family books. they are attributed to Gristamada Visvamitra, Vasudeva, Attri, Bhardwaj, Vashista, Kanva and Angiras.
• mandal IX is dedicated exclusively to Soma.
• The Tenth Mandal contains the famous Purushsukta hymn that explains the origin of four Varnas.
• The hymn were recited by priests styled as Hotris.
• Gayatric Mantra forms the most sacred hymn of Rig Veda.
• Samveda – 1603 verses – derived its roots from ‘Saman’ i.e. melody.
• The verses of Rigveda were given tune for the purpose of singing.
• These songs were meant to be sung by a special class of priests called ‘udgatri’.
• Yajur Veda (Book of sacrificial prayers).
• Written in prose, it deals with procedure for performance of sacrifices and contains rituals as well as hymns.
• Its verses were recited by ‘Adhasya’ priest of ‘Advaryu’.
• Shayama Yajurveda – it is older and contains commentaries in prose in addition to text.
• Sukla Yajurveda – contains instructions only.
• Atharva Veda (Book of Magical Formula)
• It contains charms and spells to ward off evil and disease.
• It s contents throw light on practices of non-Aryans.

Brahamanas

• They marked the transistion from vedic to later Brahmanical order.
• They are the prose commentaries on vedic hymns.
• Basically they are appendices to the Vedas which deal with rules of sacrifice and contain ritualistic formulae for respective Vedas and priest.

Aryankas

• They are final parts of the Brahmanas.
• The explain metaphysics and symbolism of sacrifice.
• Aranyakas meaning forest book were taught in forest due to their magical powers.

Upanishad

• Derived from word upanish meaning (to site down near some one) are commentaries appended to Aranytakas and deals mainly with philosophy.
• There are 108 upanishads compiled between 800-500 B.C.
• They are anti-ritualistic and define doctrine of Karma, Atman (Soul) and god (Brahma).
• They given valuable information for the reign of king Prakshit to Bimbisar
• Upvedas : Four in number:

Upveda	Highlight
Ayurveda	Medical science
Dhanurveda	Military science
Gandharveda	Deals with music
Shipa veda	Archictectural science

Shruti literature : Vedangas

• In order tounderstand the vedic text it was necessary to learn the Vedangas or the limb of Vedas. These are treatise on science and arts. They are
• (1)  SHIKSHA (Phonetics)
• (2)  KALPA (Ritual)
• (3)  VYAKARANA (Grammar)
• (4)  CHHAND (Metrics)
• (5)  NIRUKTA (Etymology)
• (6)  JYOTISHA) (Astronomy)
• Yaska’s Nirukta (5th century B.C.) is the oldest Indian linguistic text.
• Panini wrote Astadhayayi (4th Century B.C.) on Vyakaran.

Epics

• The two epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata) and major puranas seems to have been finally compiled by circa A.D. 400.
• Of the epics the Mahabharata attributed to Vyasa is older in age and possibly reflects the state of affairs from 10th century B.C. to 4th century A.D.
• Originally Mahabharata consisted of 8800 verses and was called ‘Jayasamhita’ or collection dealing with victory. These were raised to 24000 and came to be known as Bharata. The final compilation brought the verses to 100,000 which came to be known as Mahabharata or Satshri Samhita.
• The Ramayana of Valmiki originally consisted of 600 verses which were raised to 12000 and finally to 24,000.
• The Ramayana composistion started in 5th century B.C. since then it passed through five stages and fifth stage seems to be as late as 12th century A.D.

Puranas

• These are termed as real histories of Ancient India because they contain the most systematic record of Indian historical tradition.
• Puranas are eighteen in number and there are also up-puranas – Vishnu, Vayu, Brahma, Matsya and Bhagwata are of much historical importance

Ritual literature

• Kalpa Sutra is divided into three sections in post-vedic times:
• (i)   Srauta Sutras – dealing with large public sacrifices, provided for several pompous royal coronation ceremony.
• (ii)  Ghriya Sutras – deals with domestic rituals connected with birth, naming, marriage etc.
• (iii) Sulva Sutras – prescribes varius kinds of measurement for the construction of sacrificial altars.

Sources

• The sources of information of the Harappan civilization are mainly archaeological, while the Vedic culture is mostly known from the literary sources - the Vedas.

Origin

• Harappans are said to have been the original inhabitants of India while the Aryans, the founders of Vedic culture, are believed to have come to India from Central Asia.

Character

• The Harappan civilization was urban in character as evident in its town-planning, drainage system,  granary and so on.
• The Indus towns were well-planned, divided into two well- laid out parts - the citadel and lower town with elaborate gateways.
• The Vedic culture was rural. There was almost complete absence of towns in the Rigvedic period.
• At best the Rigvedic Aryans lived in fortified places protected by mud walls; and these cannot be regarded as towns in the Harappan sense.

Trade & Occupation

• In the Indus civilization trade, internal and external, crafts as well as industries were the main sources of economy,
• The later- Vedic economy on the other hand had predominance of agriculture and cattle rearing.

Agriculture

• In the Harappan civilization the only instance of furrowing the fields has been found from Kalibangan.
• The various agricultural operations, including the ploughing of fields, were better known to the later-Vedic people and they owed this knowledge to the non-Vedic people.
• For early Vedic people pastoralism was the more prestigious profession.

Metal

• Indus people did not know the use of iron.
• It (Harappan Civilization) was purely a 'copper-bronze' culture.
• The Vedic culture in its later phase is replete with references to iron.

Horse

• A few bones of horse and terracotta figure of a 'horse-like animal' have been unearthed from Surkotada (Gujarat).
• However,  it has not been convincingly proved that the horse was employed by the Harappans.
• However, vedic aryans were well aware of the Horse and it played a key role in the Aryan Warfare Tactics.

War

• Indus people were basically peace loving.
• Their arms (swords, daggers, arrow-heads, and spears) were primitive in nature.
• No evidence of armour, helmet, body armour or shield is available.
• The Aryans, on the contrary, were warriors and were conversant with all kinds of traditional arms and armour and had devised a full-fledged 'science of war'.

Kinship

• The Vedic society was primarily based on kinship where as the Harappan culture could not be basically kin-based.

Religion

• The Harappans worshipped Pashupati, Mother Goddess, animals, snake and nature.
• The fire-altars were discovered from only one Harappan site at Kalibangan.
• The Harappans practised earth burials whereas the Aryans practised cremation.
• The Aryans worshiped Varuna, Indra, Aditi and a large number of other deities which stood for the principal phenomena of nature.
• They performed sacrifices and offered milk, ghee, etc. to their gods.

Pottery

• The Harappan pottery called 'black or red pottery' was wheel made and very distinctive in nature.
• From all the Harappan sites fragments of this typical pottery have been collected in large numbers.
• The distinctive Aryan pottery is known as PGW (Painted Grey Ware).

Physical Appeareance

• The facial features and the physical types differed considerably.
• The Harappans were short stature, black in complexion and comparatively thin with short nose, thick lips and tiny eyes.
• The Aryans were tall, well-built and handsome with long and pointed nose, thin lips, pointed chins, broad shoulders and fair complexion.

Eating Habits

• The life style was also different.
• The Harappans ate all birds and animals including cow and calf.
• They ate wheat, barley and bread.
• The Aryans preferred milk and its products, specially ghee or butter and enjoyed Soma drink. Meat of the animals scarified was eaten.

Dressing Sense

• The dress and costumes, the hair-do's and the cosmetics, the jewellery and the ornaments etc. of the two cultures differed.
• The Harappan women put on a skirt and men used a band of cloth round their loins.
• The Aryans used embroidered cloth along with the ones made of leather, hide or skin.
• Cotton was the basic fabric of the Harappans while the Aryans put on woollen garments too.

Langauge

• It is quite evident that the Indus people were literate.
•  The Indus script however,  still remains undeciphered and we are completely in the dark about its literary developments.
• Vedic Sanskrit is the mother of all non-Dravidian languages of India and almost all Indian Languages were deeply influenced by it.
• We do not have any word for writing in any of the Vedic texts, for this reason, some scholars believe that Vedic People were illiterate in terms of "writing".

• The six Darshans were written between the 6th century and at the time of Ashoka. These are given in the form of Sutras or aphorisms. These are as follows.

	Philosophy	Prpounder
(1)	Nyaya (Analysis)	Gautam
(2)	Vaisesika (Atomic characteries)	Kanad
(3)	Sankhya (Oldest, enumeration)	Kapil
(4)	Yoga (application)	Patanjali
(5)	Purva Mimansa (enquiry)	Jamini
(6)	Uttar Mimansa (Vedanta)	Vyasa

• (Purva) Mimansa: Sought to explain and revive Vedas concerned with ritual. No necessity of benavolent or active God. The earliest work of this school is said to be the Sutras of Jaimini (C. 6th Century B.C.), the greatest of the early ‘mimamsa’ scholars was Shabarsvamin who flourished in the 6th century A.D.
• Vaisheshika: It is older then “Nayaya. Founder was Uluka Kanada. The greatest of his commentators, Prashashtappad, perhaps lived in the sixth century.
• Yoga: The basic text goes back to the Yoga Sutra of PatanJali (2nd century B.C.). The present form is attributed to Vyas, who lived seven centuries later.
• Nyaya: Founder was Akshapada Gautam (early centuries of Christian era). Pakshilasvamin Vatsyayan, its main expositor, may be referred to the fourth century A.D. It gives emphasis on Tarka or logic, which the basis of all studies. Akshapader literally means “the eye-footed”, i.e., the eyes directed on the foot.
• Sankhaya: Authored by Kapila, who lived about 580 B.C. Mentioned in Bhagavat, Gita, and occurring in a primitive form in the Upanishads. Its fundamental principle is the dualism of Purusha and Prakriti. Prakriti is developed by the Kinds of Gunas, viz., saltva (source of good and happiness), Raias (source of good and happiness), Rajas (source of activity and pain) Tamas (source of activity and pain) Tamas (source of ignorance, sloth and apathy). World is not real. Prakriti etemal. Sankhya does not believe in the existence of God. Prakriti and Purush-Independent of God.
• Uttara Mimansa (also called Vedanta): BadrayanA is said to have formulated its main tenets in the early Christian centuries. Gaudapada, an important thinker of this school lived around the middle of the sixth century A.D. Vedanta contains 555-Sutras
• divided into four chapters.

• A number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the subcontinent, many mentioned during Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far back as 1000 BCE. By 500 BCE, sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as the Mahajanapadas — Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Machcha (or Matsya), Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, Kamboja — stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharastra. This period was that of the second major urbanisation in India after the Indus Valley Civilization.

Origin And Developments Of Mahajanapadas

• The political structure of the ancient Indians appears to have started with semi-nomadic tribal units called Jana (meaning "people" or by extension "ethnic group" or "tribe").
• Early Vedic texts attest several Janas or tribes of the Indo-Aryans, living in a semi-nomadic tribal state and fighting among themselves and with other Non-Aryan tribes for cows, sheep and green pastures.
• The early Vedic Janas later coalesced into the Janapadas.
• The term "Janapada" literally means the foothold of a tribe. The fact that Janapada is derived from Jana points to an early stage of land-taking by the Jana tribe for a settled way of life.
• Permanent settlement in a particular area gave a geographical identity to a tribe or a group of tribes. This identity was given concrete shape in the possession of the area, which was generally named after the tribe.
• This process of first settlement on land had completed its final stage prior to the times of the Buddha and Paigni.
• Pre-Buddhist north-west region of the Indian sub-continent was divided into several Janapadas demarcated from each other by boundaries.
• In Panini's writing, Janapada stands for country and Janapadin for its citizenry.
• Each of these Janapadas was named after the tribe (or the Jana) who had settled therein. To maintain this possession required political organization, either as a republic or a monarchy.

Formation of States: Mahajanapadas (Monarchies and Republics)

• Defined by Kautilya in his Saptanga theory (in Arthasastra) a state was characterized by 7 principles.
• SaptangPrinciples: The king, the minister, the country, the fortified city, the treasury, the army and the ally are constituent elements of the state.
• No state formation satisfied all these 7 aspects till the end of 6th century BC.
• From the 6th century B.C. onwards, the widespread use of iron in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Western Bihar, as evident from excavations at Rajghat and Chirand, led to the formation of large territorial states which were better equipped militarily and in which warrior class played the main role.
• New agricultural tools and implements enabled the peasants to produce a good amount of surplus which not only met the needs of the ruling class but also supported numerous towns.
• Towns came into existence as centres of industry and trade. Some such as Shravasti, Champa, Rajagriha, Ayodhya, Kausambi, Kashi and Pataliputra were of substantial importance to the economy of the Ganges plains. Others such as Vaishali, Ujjain, Taxila and the port of Bharukachchha (Broach) had a wider economic reach.
• A passage from Panini, makes it clear that the people owed their allegiance to the Janapada (territory) to which they belonged and not to the Jana or the tribe to which they belonged.
• In the post-Vedic period, the entire northern territory mostly situated north of the Vindhyas and extending from the North-West frontier to Bihar was divided into sixteen states called Sodasha Mahajanapadas.
• These Mahajanapadas were either monarchical or republican in character.
• The Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (Solasa Mahajanapadas) which were in existence before the time of Buddha.
• They do not give any connected history except in the case of Magadha.
• According to Buddhist texts, fourteen of the Mahajanapadas belong to Majjhimadesa (Mid India) while the two (Gandhara and Khamboja) belong to Uttarapatha or the north-west division of Jambudvipa.

Sodasha Mahajanapadas — The Sixteen Mahajanapadas

• The Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, at several places, gives a list of sixteen great nations:

Anga

• The capital city of Anga mahajanapad (around modern Bhagalpur and Munger districts in Bihar) was Champa. 
• Magadh was on its west and Raja Mahal hills on the east. 
• It was a great center of trade and commerce and its merchants regularly sailed to distant Suvarnabhumi.
• Anga was annexed by Magadha in the time of Bimbisara. This was the one and only conquest of Bimbisara.

Assaka

• The capital of the Assakas was Potana or Potali or Podana (in modern Maharashtra).
• Assaka or the Ashmaka was located in Dakshinapatha or southern India.
• In Buddha's time, the Assakas were located on the banks of the river Godavari (only Mahajanapada south of the Vindhya Mountains).
• The Ashmakas are also mentioned by Panini.

Avanti

• The country of the Avantis was an important kingdom of western India and was one of the four great monarchies in India in the post era of Mahavira and Buddha.
• The other three being Kosala, Vatsa and Magadha. 
• Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa, Nimar and adjoining parts of the Madhya Pradesh.
• Avanti was divided into north and south by the riverVetravati.
• Initially, Mahissati (Sanskrit Mahishamati) was the capital of Southern Avanti, and Ujjaini (Sanskrit: Ujjayini) was of northern Avanti, but at the times of Mahavira and Buddha, Ujjaini was the capital of integrated Avanti. 
• Both Mahishmati and Ujjaini stood on the southern high road called Dakshinapathawhich extended from Rajagriha to Pratishthana (modern Paithan).
• Avanti was an important center of Buddhism and some of the leading 'theras' and 'theris' were born and resided there. 
• Pradyota dynasty ruled over Avanti.
• Pradyota was contemporary to Gautama Buddha.
• Ajatashatru, the king of Magadha fortified Rajagriha to protect it from an invasion led by Pradyota.
• Pradyota also waged war on Pushkarasarin, king of Takshashila.
• Pradyota's chief queen was a disciple of Buddhist monk Mahakatyayana and constructed a stupa in Ujjayini.
• Last King Nandivardhana of Avanti was defeated by king Shishunaga of Magadha.
• Avanti later became part of the Magadhan empire.

Chedi

• The Chedis, Chetis or Chetyaslay in eastern Bundelkhand near Yamuna midway between the kingdom of Kurus and Vatsas. 
• Sotthivati or Suktimati of Mahabharata was the capital of Chedi.
• Shisupala was a Chei ruler and enemy of Krishna.
• Slaying of Shisupala becaame the central theeme of a log poem by a poet Magha.
• A branch of Chedis founded a royal dynasty in the kingdom of Kalinga according to the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela.

Gandhara

• Its capital was Taxila. Another main city was Pushkalavati
• It covered the regions between Kabul and Rawalipindi in North Western Provinces, Peshawar, the Potohar plateau and on the Kabul River. 
• The Taxila University was a renowned center of learning in ancient times, where scholars from all over the world came to seek higher education.
• Puini, the Indian genius of grammar and Kautiliya are the world renowned products of Taxila University.
• King Pukkusati or Pushkarasarin of Gandhara in the middle of the sixth century BC was the contemporary of king Bimbisara of Magadha.
• Gandhara was located on Uttarapatha and was a centre of international commercial activities.
• It was an important channel of communication with ancient Iran and CentralAsia.  Gandhara was often linked politically with the neighboring regions of Kashmir and Kamboja.

Taxila University Taxila University is the oldest university and was probably the first organised educational centre of ancient India. It is not clear as to who actually founded this university, although it was funded by almost all the great kings and rulers of the ancient past. It was a centre of learning for logic, religion, medicine, mathematics, astrology, the Vedas, warfare and primitive science. Taxila, which was earlier the capital of Gandhara Kingdom, allowed students from all parts of India to be enrolled and education was free for all. Only Chandlas were not allowed to study in this University. Scholars like Nagarjuna, Panini, Chanakya, Prasanajit, Jeevka (son of Bimbisara) all came to this place to study before they became important personalities of Indian History. Even foreign Rulers acceptedits importance and many of them took scholars from this University to their Nations. In 500 BC, the Hun ruler of Toramana, attacked and demolished the University Campus. During that time, most of the records were burnt or destroyed.

Kamboja

•  Its capital Rajpur (modern Rajouri).
• It was located around Punchh area of Kashmir. 
• Kambojas are also included in the Uttarapatha. Ancient Kamboja is known to have comprised regions on either side of the Hindukush. 
• The Mahabharata refers to several Ganas (or Republics) of the Kambojas.
• Kautiliya's Arthashastra and Ashoka's Edict No. XIII also attest that the Kambojas followed republican constitution.
• Panini's Sutras, though tend to convey that the Kamboja was a Kshatriya monarchy, but "the special rule and the exceptional form of derivative" he gives to denote the ruler of the Kambojas implies that the king of Kamboja was a titular head only.
•  In a struggle for supremacy that followed in the sixth/fifth century BC, the growing state of the Magadhas emerged as the most predominant power in ancient India, annexing several of the Janapadas of the Majjhimadesa(Madhyadesa).
• Puranas laments that Magadhan emperor Mahapadma Nanda exterminated all Kshatriyas, none worthy of the name Kshatrya being left thereafter.
• This obviously refers to the Kasis, Kosalas, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas and other tribes of the east Panjab.
• The Kambojans and Gandharans, however, never came into direct contact with the Magadhan state until Chandragupta and Kautiliya arose on the scene.
• But these nations also fell prey to the Achaemenids of Persia during the reign of Cyrus (558-530 BC) or in the first year of Darius.
• Kamboja and Gandhara formed the twentieth and richest strapy of the Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus I is said to have destroyed the famous Kamboja city called Kapisi (modern Begram).

Kashi

• The kingdom was located in the region around its capital Varanasi, bounded by the Varuna and Asi rivers in the north and south which gave Varanasi its name.
• Before Buddha, Kasi was the most powerful of the sixteen Mahajanapadas.
• Several jataka tales bear witness to the superiority of its capital over other cities in India and speak highly of its prosperity and opulence.
•  These stories tell of the long struggle for supremacy between Kashi and the three kingdoms of Kosala, Anga and Magadha. 
• Kashi emerged as a leading textile manufacture in the time of Buddha, the Kashya, orange brown robes of Buddhist monk are said to be manufactured here. 
• Although King Brihadratha of Kashi conquered Kosala, Kashi was later incorporated into Kosala during Buddha's time. 
• The Matsya Purana and Alberuni spell Kashi as Kausika and Kaushaka respectively.
• All other ancient texts read Kashi. 
• According to Dasaratha jataka (one of the Buddhist birth stories), Ram was brother and husband of Sita was king of Kashi (not Ayodhya).

Kosala

•  Kosala was located to the north-west of Magadha, with its capital at Savatthi (Sravasti), about 60  miles north of modern Ayodhya in the Sahet-Mahet region.
• Its territory corresponded to the  modern Awadh (or Oudh) in Central and Eastern Uttar Pradesh.  
• It had the river Ganges for its southern, the river Gandak (Narayani) for its eastern, and the Himalaya mountains for its northern boundary.  Lord Rama was a king in this dynasty.
• Other great kings were Prithu, Harishchandra, Dilip, who  find mention in different Puranas, Ramayan, and Mahabharat.
• Later, the kingdom was ruled by the famous king Prasenjit during the era of Mahavira and Buddha. 
• King Prasenjit was highly educated. His position was further improved by a matrimonial alliance  with Magadha: his sister was married to Bindhusara and part of Kashi was given as dowry. 
• There was, however, a struggle for supremacy between king Prasenjit and king Ajatasatru of  Magadha which was finally settled once the confederation of Lichchavis became aligned with  Magadha.
• Kosala was ultimately merged into Magadha when Vidudabha was Kosala's ruler. 
• Ayodhya, Saketa, Banaras, and Sravasti were the chief cities of Kosala.

Kuru

• Kurus roughly corresponded to the modern Thanesar, state of Delhi and Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh.
• According to the Jatakas, the capital of the Kurus was Indraprastha (Indapatta) near modern Delhi. 
• At Buddha's time, the Kuru country was ruled by a titular chieftain (king consul) named Korayvya.
• The Kurus of the Buddhist period did not occupy the same position as they did in the Vedic period.
• The Kurus had matrimonial relations with the Yadavas, the Bhojas, Trigrata s and the Panchalas.
• Though a well known monarchical people in the earlier period, the Kurus are known to have switched to a republican form of government during the sixth to fifth centuries BC.
• In the fourth century BC, Kautiliya's Arthashastra also attests the Kurus following the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul) constitution.

Magadha

• The Magadha was one of the most prominent and prosperous of mahajanapadas.
• The capital city Pataliputra( Patna, Bihar) was situated on the confluence of major rivers like Ganga, Son, Punpun and Gandak.
• The alluvial plains of this region and its proximity to the iron rich areas of Bihar and Jharkhand helped the kingdom to develop good quality weapons and support the agrarian economy.
• These factors helped Magadha to emerge as the most prosperous state of that period.
• The kingdom of the Magadhas roughly corresponded to the modern districts of Patna and Gaya in southern Bihar and parts of Bengal in the east.
• During Buddha's time its boundaries included Anga. 
• Its earliest capital was Girivraja or Rajagaha (modern Rajgir in Bihar).
• The other names for the city were Magadhapura.
• Brihadrathapura, Vasumati, Kushagrapura and Bimbisarapuri. It was an active center of Jainism in ancient times.
• The first Buddhist Council was held in Rajagaha in the Vaibhara Hills. Later on, Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha.

Malla

• The Mallas are frequently mentioned in Buddhist and Jain works.
• During the Buddhist period, the Mallas/Malls Kshatriya were republican people with their dominion consisting of nine territories corresponding to the nine confederated clans.
• These republican states were known as Gana.
• Two of these confederations — one with Kusinara (modern Kasia near Gorakhpur) as its capital and the second with Pava (modern Padrauna, 12 miles from Kasia) as the capital — had become very important at the time of Buddha.
• Kusinara and Pava are very important in the history of Buddhism and Jainism since Buddha and Lord Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara took their last breath at Kushinara and Pava/Pavapuri respectively.
• The Mallas originally had a monarchical form of government but later they switched to one ot Samgha (republic).
• The members of which called themselves rajas. 
• The Mallas appeared to have formed an alliance with the Licchhavis for self-defense but lost their independence not long after Buddha's death and their dominions were annexed to the Magadhan empire. 
• Malla along with other Sanghiya kshtriyas like the Licchhavis, Koliyas and Shakya were ruling from their Santhagara, which was like an assembly hall.
• These Santhagara kshatriyas were placed below Vedic kshtriyas in the social hierarchy.

Matsya

• Matsya or Machcha tribe lay to the south of the Kurus and west of the Yamuna, which separated them from the Panchalas.
• It roughly corresponded to the former state of Jaipur-Alwar-Bharatpur region of Rajasthan.
• It was suitable for cattle rearing. The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagara (modern Bairat) which is said to have been named after its founder king Virata.
• In Pali literature, the Matsyas are usually associated with the Surasenas.
• The Matsyas had not much political importance of their own during the time of Buddha.
• King Sujata ruled over both the Chedis and Matsyas, thus showing that Matsya once formed a part of the Chedi kingdom.

Panchala

• The Panchalas occupied the country to the east of the Kurus between the mountains and river Ganges.
• It roughly corresponded to modern Budaun, Farrukhabad and the adjoining districts of Uttar Pradesh. 
• It was divided into Uttara-Panchala and Dakshina-Panchala.
• The northern Panchala had its capital at Adhichhatra or Chhatravati (modern Ramnagar in the Bareilly District), while southern Panchala had it capital at Kampilya or Kampil in Farrukhabad District.
• The famous city of Kanyakubja or Kanauj was situated in the kingdom of Panchala. 
• Originally a monarchical clan, the Panchals appear to have switched to republican corporation in the sixth and fifth centuries BC.
• In the fourth century BC, Kautiliya's Arthashastra also attests the Panchalas as following the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul) constitution.

Surasena

• Surasenas lay to the east of Matsya and west of Yamuna.
• This corresponds roughly to the Brij region  of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gwalior region of Madhya Pradesh.
• It had its capital  at Madhura or Mathura.
• Avantiputra, the king of Surasena was the first among the chief disciples of Buddha, through whose help Buddhism gained ground in Mathura country.
• In Kautiliya's Arthashastra, the Vrishnis are described as samgha or republic.
• The Vrishnis, Andhakas and other allied tribes of the Yadavas formed a samgha and Vasudeva (Krishna) is described as the samgha-mukhya.  Mathura, the capital of Surasena was also known at the time of Megasthenese as the centre of Krishna worship.
• The Surasena kingdom had lost its independence on annexation by the Magadhan empire.

Vajji or Vrijjis

• The Vajjians included eight confederated clans (with 7707 Rajas) of whom the Licchhavis, the Videhans,  the Jnatrikas and the Vajjis were the most important. Mithila (modern Janakpur in district of Tirhut) was the capital of Videha and became the predominant center of the political and cultural activities of northern India. It was in the time of king Janaka that Videha came into prominence. On the ruins of this kingdom arose the republics of the Licchhavis and Videhans and seven other small ones.
• The Licchavis were a very independent people. The mother of Mahavira was a Licchavi princess.  Vaishali (modern Basarh in North Bihar) was the capital of the Licchavis and the political  headquarters of the powerful Varijian confederacy. Vaishali was located 25 miles north of the river  Ganges and was a very prosperous town. The Second Buddhist Council was held at Vaishali. The  Licchavis were followers of Buddha. Buddha is said to have visited them on many occasions. They  were closely related by marriage to the Magadhas and one branch of the Licchavi dynasty ruled Nepal until the start of the Middle Ages.
• Vaishali, the headquarters of the powerful Vajji republic and the capital of the Licchavis was defeated by king Ajatasatru of Magadha. Around 600 BCE, the Licchavis were disciples of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. During their lifetimes, both Mahavira and Gautama Buddha visited Vaishali several times.

Vajji administration:

• Known as the Vajji Sangha (Vajji Confederation), Vajji consisted of several janapadas, gramas (villages) and gosthas (groups).
• The main gosthas were the Licchavis, Mallas and Sakyas.
• Eminent people were chosen from each khanda (district) as representatives to the Vajji gana parishad (people's council of Vajji).
• These representatives were called gana mukhyas.
• The chairman of the council was titled gana pramukha but often he was addressed as a king although his post was neither dynastic nor hereditary. 
• The other executives were the mahabaladhrikrita (a minister of internal security), the binishchayamatya or chief justice, dandadhikrita (other justices) etc.

Vamsa or Vatsa or Vachchas

• The Vatsas are stated to be an offshoot of the Kurus who had shifted from Hastinapur and settled down at Kaushambi.
• The Vatsa corresponded with the territory of modern Allahabad and Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh. 
• It had a monarchical form of government with its capital at Kausambi (identified with the village Kosam, 38 miles from Allahabad). 
• Kausambi was a very prosperous city where a large number of millionaire merchants resided.
• It was the most important entreport of goods and passengers from the north-west and south.
• Ujjain and Kaushambi were connected by a major trae route. 
• Udayana was the ruler of Vatsa in the sixth century BC, the time of Buddha.
• He was very powerful, warlike and fond of hunting.
• Initially king Udayana was opposed to Buddhism but later became a follower of Buddha and made Buddhism the state religion.

Jainism

• The earliest important teaching of Jainism are attributed to Parshvanath, the 23rd thirthankara (Ford Maker), who was prince of Benares.
• The names of Rishabdeva and Aristanemi are found in Rig Veda.
• Mahavira was last of 24th thirthankar. He was born in (540 B.C. – 468 B.C.)s at Kundalgram a villageindentified as Basarah in district of Vaishali.
• He belonged to Jnatrika clan. His father Siddharat was chief of Janatriba clan.
• His mother was named Trishala who was sister of Lichchavi chief chetak whose daughter Chellana was married to Bimbisar.
• He left his home at the age of 30 and wandered for twelve years. He got ‘Kaivalya’ at the age of 42 under a Saltree on the bank of river Rijupalika near Jrimbhikagram.
• Hereafter he was Kevalin (omniscient), Jina (Conqueror); Jitendra and Mahavira (great hero)
• At first Mhavira followed the practice of ascetic group called the Nirgranthas (free from bonds) which have been founded by Parshavnatha.
• He propogated his religion for 30 year and his mission took him to Magadha, Mithila, Champaetc. He passed away at the age of 72 in 468 B.C. at a place called Pavapuri near Rajgir.

Doctrines of Jainism

• Jainism Taught Five Doctrines:
• (1)  Do not commit violence- Ahimsa
• (2)  Do not speak a lie – Satya
• (3)  Do not steal – Asteya
• (4)  Do not acquire property – Aparigraha
• (5)  Observe continence – Brahmacharya
• Only the fifth doctrine was added by Mahavira.
• Jainism attached utmost importance to ahimsa (non-violence) and non-injury to living beings.
• Mahavira asked his followers to lead a more austere life. He asked his followers to discard his clothes completely. Parsva has permitted the use of three garments.
• Jainism mainly aims at attainment of freedom from wordly bonds. Mahavira taught 3 fold paths known as three jewels or ‘Triratna’ of Jainism for emancipation of soul from transmigration. There are,
• (1)  Right Belief – Samyak Dhayan.
• (2)  Right knowledge – Samyak Jnana
• (3)  Right conduct – Samyak Charitra.
• It did not condemn the Varna system as Buddhism did. It prohibited the practice of war and agriculture fore it followers because both involve the killing of living being.

Jain council

• The first Jain council was held at  Patiliputra – Jainism came to be divided into Svetambars (white clad) and Digambars (who remained naked). The Digambars did not recognized the rearranged version of 12 Angas (The Jain literature)
• The second Jain council (512 A.D.). – held at Vallabhi presided over by Deyardhi Kshama – Sramana.
• At this council the Jain canonical texts were finally compiled.

Importance and Influence of Jainism

• Jaina Monastic establishment were called ‘Basadiis’
• Jainism made the first severe attempt to mitigate the evils of the varna order and the ritualistic vedic religion.
• The early jainas discarded Sanskrit language and adopted Prakrit, the language of common people.
• Their religious literature was writer in ‘Ardhamagdhi’.
• Prakrit language gave birth to make languages like Shauraseni out of which grew the Marathi language.
• The earliest important works of Jainas were composed in ‘Apabhramsha’.
• They also contributed to the growth of Kannada.

Gautam Buddha and Buddhism

• Buddha was born in 563 B.C. in a Shakya kshatriya family in a grove of sal trees names Lumbini near Kapilvastu.
• His father Suddhodhana was a elected ruler or Kapilvastu and mother was Mahamaya, a princes from Kosalan Dynasty. he was married to Yasodhara.
• At the age of 29, Siddharata left his house and this is called  ‘MAHA BHINISKRAMANA’ a great going forth or great Renunciation.
• From a sage named Allara Kalama he learned the techniques of Mediation and the lore of ‘Brahma’ as taught in Upanishad.
• He got Nirvana on bank or river niranjana under Pipal tree near Bodhgaya.
• He gave his first sermon at Sarnath to the five former disciples and called the preaching of Sermonas DHARMACHAKRA PARIVARTANA.
• He formed a disciplined body of monks (Bhiksus) known as Sangha for the expansion of his ideas.
• He returned to Kapilvastu and converted his mother, wife and son (Rahul) and and his cousin Devadatta.
• At the request of his foster mother Gautami he alloed with much forgiving the formation of nuns.
• He died at the age of 80 in 483 B.C. at a place called Kushinager identical with village called Kasia in district of Deoria, in eastern U.P. This was the final blowing out – PARINIRVANA

Doctrines of Buddhism

• The Buddha proved to be a practical reformer who took notes of relities of day. he did not involve himself in controversies regarding soul (atman) and Brahma (god).
• According to him there were four noble truth.
• The world is full of suffering.
• Desire is the main cause of suffering.
• Freedom from suffering is possible by giving up desire.
• There is a way out of suffering.
• For elimination of human misery. Buddha suggested Eight fold path (Astangika Marg) which comprises of
• (i)   Right observation       
• (ii)  Right determination
• (iii) Right speech              
• (iv) Right action
• (v)  Right livelihood
• (vi) Right exercise
• (vii)Right memory
• (viii)Right meditation
• Gautam taught that a person should avoid the excess of both luxury and austerity. He prescribed the middle path.
• Buddhism does not recognize the existence of god and soul.
• Buddhism shared the contemporary belief in Samsara and Karma.
• Buddhism rejected the authority of the Vedas, condemned blood sacrifices, denied or doubted the existence of supreme creative spirit.
• Caste was no bar for enrolment in the Buddhist order.
• Three main elements of Buddhism are Buddha, Sangha and Dharma.
• In course of time there developed many sects of Buddhism out of which the most important were Hinayana (lesser vehicle), Mahayana (greater Vehicle) and Vajrayana (Vehicle of Thunderbolt).
• The Hinayana believed in original teachings of Buddha and in individual efforts of Salvation by understanding the noble truth and following the eight fold paths.
• The Mahayana believed that everyone can not get Salvation by individual efforts, only a few like Buddha and Boddhisatvas can get it. So the best way is to worship Buddha and Boddhisatava.
• Vajrayana incorporated into it the elements of Tantricism.

Causes for Decline of Buddhism

• By the 12th century A.D. Buddhism became practically extinct in India.
• The monks gave up pali language and took to Sanskrit, the language of intellectuals.
• From the 1st century A.D. they practiced idol worship and received numerous gifts from devotees. The rich offering supplemented by generous royal grants to Buddhist monastries made the lives of monks easy and they gave themselves to sensual pleasures indulging in corrupt practices.
• The Brahamana ruler Pushymitra Sungha persecuted the Buddhist. The Huna King Mihirkula, who was worshpper or Shiva killed hundreds of Buddhists.
• The Shaivite Shasanka of Gauda cut off the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya.
• In South India both the Shaivites and Vaishnavites bitterly opposed Buddhism in early Medieval times. Such conflicts many have weakened Buddhism.
• The monastries for their riches came to be coveted by Turkish invaders. They became special targets of the invaders greeds.

Importance and Influence of Buddhism

• The conversion of Shundras and women to Buddhism free them from the inferior status imposted the cattle weath of the country, with its emphasis on nonviolence and the sanctitiy of animal life
• The earliest Buddhist text ‘Suttanipatta’ declared cattle to be giver of food (Annada), Beauty (Vannada) and happiness (Sukhada) and therefore pleaded for their protection.
• The Brahmanical insistence on the sacredness of the cow and non-violence was apparently derived from Buddhist teaching.
• The first human statues worshipped in India were probably those of Buddha which was fashioned by Gandhara school of Art.
• The Buddhist canonical literature is written in Pali and is divided into 3 categories and are dubbed as ‘Tripitaka’. The first contains the saying and the teaching of Buddha i.e. Suttapitka, the second deals with rules and conduct to be observed by Sangha (Vinayapitaka) and the third presents the philoshical exposition of Dhama (Abhidhamma pitaka).

Development of Buddhism : First Buddhist Council 483 B.C.

• Held at Rajgriha. It was presided by Mahakashap.
• Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka or Rules of order
• Another Disciple Anada recited the Sutta Pitaka the great collection of Buddha’s Sermon.
• Sutta Pitaka is divided into 5 Nikayas
• (i)   Digha Nikaya
• (ii)  Majihima Nikaya
• (iii) Samyutta Nikaya
• (iv) Anguttara Nikaya
• (v)  Khuddak Nikaya
• Khuddak Nikaya contains ‘JATAKAS’

Second buddhist council (383 b.c.)

• Under the presidentship of Sabakami at Vaishali during reign of Kala Ashoka.
• Here Buddhism come to be divided into two sects.
• (a)  The orthodox ‘Sthaviravadins’ or believers in teaching of elders
• (b)  ‘Mahasanghika’ or members of greater community.

Third buddhist council (25 b.c.)

• At Patliputra under the patronage of Asoka presided by Tissa Mugaliputta.
• The last section was added, to Pakscriptures, the Katha Vattu of Abhidhamma Pitaka dealing with Psychology and Metaphysics.
• In this council it was decided to send Buddhist Missionary to other countries.
• Its simple ritual was ased on cult of Chaityas or sacred pots.

Fourth buddhist council (72 a.d.)

• At Kundanvan in Kashmir under royal patronage of Kanishka
• It was presided by Vasumitra.
• Sarvastivadin Doctrine were codified in The summary mahavibhasa.
• here Buddhism was divied into two broad sect Mayayana or greatr vehicle and Hinayana or lesser vehicle.
• Mahayana supported the philosophy of workship of Buddha idol and Boddhisattava
• Hinayana was against the idol worship and followed the eight fold path for Salvation. It became popular in Ceylon, Bunna,k Thailand etc.
• At around 8th century A.D., a third vehicle, the vehicle of Thunderbolt appeared in eastern India and grew rapidly in Bengal and Bihar.
• The main centgre of Vajrayana was the Vikramshila monastry in Bihar
• It was this form of Buddhism which was finally established in Tibet in 11th Century A.D. by the efforts and teachings of two Buddhist monks Santarakshita and Dipankara.
• The chief Divinities of these sects were the ‘Saviourness’, the spouse of Buddha and Boddhisattava.
• TerritorialStates and First Magadhan Empire – 16 Maha janapadas
• According to Buddhist Text Auguttra Nikaya, there were 16 Mahajanpadas.
• Of these Magadha emerged as most powerful.

Hindu Revivalist Movement

• In face of attacks from Jainism and Buddhism, the Hindu religion sought to revive its lost glory.

Bhagavatism or Vaishnavism

• This sect was propaged by Vasudeva.
• The faith in the Puranas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Bhagwat Gita, theory of incarnations of God, attainment of Salvation or Nirvana by bhakti, idol-worship, chanting of prayers, etc. were popularized by him.
• In Bhagavatism, Vishnu, is considered as the supreme God.
• He is the creator of the universe, reigns in Vaikunthas and rests in the primeval ocean on the thousand-headed snake, ‘Sesanaga.’
• The colour of his skin is dark blue and he has four arms.
• His wife is Lakshmi who is the Goddess of wealth and prosperity.
• He rides the great eagle, Garuda. Brahma who creates the world is born in the lotus-flower which grows from the navel of Vishnu in his sleep.
• The same way, all other Gods have been created and are dependent on Vishnu.
• Therefore, Vishnu is the Param-Brahma, the Paramatma, Narayana or Hari and therefore,worship and bhakti of Vishnu is the most essential religious duty of an individual.
• Bhagwad Gita was the most popular religious book of Bhagavatism which is generally believed to be a work of the first or second century B.C.
• The Gita delivers the most harmonious blend of three paths of salvation or Nirvana, viz. though Gyana (knowledge), Karma (action) and Bhakti (devotion) and declares, “All roads to Moksha (salvation) lead but unto me.”
• Gyana is the realization by an individual that every soul is a part of the Paramatma (Universal Soul), every person has a soul, soul never dies, nobody can touch or kill a soul, soul has neither friends, enemies nor relations and soul neither feels pleasure nor pain.
• If an individual does not realize this, then he or she is ignorant and cannot attain salvation.
• According to the Gita, Agyana (ignorance) is more a spiritual blindness than an intellectual weakness which can be removed by Karma-yoga.
• But the Gyanamarg which directs an individual to the meditation of the absolute is a difficult process. Therefore, the Gita suggests Karma-marg as an easier alternative.
• An individual should be Karma-Yoging to attain Nirvana.
• Spread of Bhagvatism: The religious ideas and practices which grew up during this time had matured by the age of the Guptas and found their permanent place in Hinduism. Of course, religious scholars and preachers like Kumaril Bhatt who preached Dualism and Shankaracharya who preached Monism tried to revive the Karma (action) and Gyana (knowledge) marg respectively to attain Nirvana but their efforts brought little results.

Saivism

• The other popular sect of Hindusim is Saivism. The origin of Siva can be traced to the concept of Rudra in the Rigveda.
• Probably, he found his place among Aryan Gods because of the influence of the Dravidians, who had a similar God among them called Pasupati. In the Yajurveda, he is refered to as Sambhu or Shankar. In the Athravaveda, he is regarded as the Supreme God while in the Svetasvatara Upanishad, his spouse Uma or Parvati, is provided a similar position. Thus, Siva rose into prominence with the passage of time. However, the rise of Saivism, with a philosophy and organization of its own, cannot be traced back
• Erlier than about the beginning of the Charistian era. The sect, probably, was started by a person called Lakulin or Nakulin near about the beginning of the 2nd century A.D. Afterwards, Saivism was divided into four important schools, viz. Pasupata, Saiva, Kapalika and Kalamukha. However, Shiva is worshipped most in the form of the Linga (Phallus) because of the influence of another sect of Saivism called Lingyat. Saivism is now a part of Hinduism and the worship of Siva is most popular among the Hindus.