The Russian Revolution took place in 1917, before the end of the War. It is also known as the Bolshevik revolution, because Bolsheviks as a political group played a leading role in the success of the revolution and also determined its policies.

This was the first socialist revolution in history and it was inspired by the ideals of communism. In your earlier lessons you have learnt something about capitalism and the ideas of socialism, and how socialism represents equality and social justice to a greater degree than is possible under capitalism. The revolution came about as a result of the movements of the working people—the working class and the peasantry.

By 1917 the Russian Empire was under strain both from the consequences of the long war and by the political and social movements within the country. Up to February 1917 Russia was a multinational Empire, ruled by an autocrat, who was known as the Tsar. Its territory was huge, including a large part of Central Asia and parts of Eastern Europe. There were no representative institutions, no right to form political or trade union organizations, no elections. There was strict censorship and arbitrary arrests. There was no religious tolerance, and the other nationalities and minorities in the Empire did not enjoy equal rights with the Russians, because the Tsar, Nicholas II, belonged to the Russian Romanov dynasty. The Tsar used his military and diplomatic strength against all democratic movements in Europe. For this he was known as the ‘Policeman’ of Europe. These conditions were very oppressive and very different from Western Europe in the late 19th and early 20th century.

The old and the new

While the political system remained an autocracy, important changes were taking place in economy and society, which created new aspirations. New ideas were also emerging, and many sections of society were becoming dissatisfied with the oppressive rule of the Tsar. Since they had no parliamentary system or elections through which to express their opposition to the Tsarist policies, they had to adopt a revolutionary path. They had to overthrow the system of autocracy itself to have a say in society and policies which affected them. This was a major difference between other European countries and the Russian Empire.

Agriculture and peasant discontent

The peasants were also very discontented. As in western and central Europe, the peasant-serfs were freed in the Russian Empire as well, although very much later, in 1861. But despite this land reform, the landed aristocracy remained strong and continued to oppress the peasants. Also, the peasantry just did not have enough land: the peasants constituted about 80 percent of the population, but had hardly 50 percent of the land. The demand for land was therefore a major cause for anger against the Tsar who had let them down by such an inadequate land reform.

Also the freed peasants had to pay very heavily for both land and freedom. The peasants had to pay such a heavy price that they remained continually in debt, and were forced to work very cheaply for the landlords. Peasants were also very heavily burdened with taxes.

Agriculture remained backward because the peasants did not have enough money to invest in the improvement of their land, and the landlords thought: why pay for buying machinery if peasants are there as cheap labor?

In all matters of interest to the peasants the autocracy sided with the landlords, and sent out troops to suppress peasant revolts. Since agriculture was the major sector of Russian economy and peasants were the majority population, the agricultural backwardness and the peasant discontent became important factors for the revolution.

There were continuous peasant uprisings during the 19th century, and in the early 20^th century they became part of the general revolutionary movement.

Industrialisation and workers’ discontent

The workers movement in the Russian Empire was stronger and more political than anywhere else in Europe. This had something to do with the nature of industrialization here and the political conditions in the Russian Empire. Industrialization in Russia was late as compared to Western Europe, but it was at a much faster pace. This meant that there were small, but also many huge factories with a great number of workers, even in the early stages of industrialization. Working class movements were therefore able to develop here much faster than they had in the west European countries, and the capitalists here did not get time to consolidate their power before the working class movement became strong. Many strikes took place in the last decade of the nineteenth century, and by 1905 the workers played a leading role in the revolutionary movement[1].

The workers’ movement in the Russian Empire was also much more militant and political than in other countries; and it was both against the Autocracy which did not allow them to form organizations and sided with their employers, and against the employers who were the factory owners and responsible for their low wages and bad working conditions. Their movement also had a greater orientation towards socialism than in other countries.

By the first decade of the 20th century women constituted a sizeable percentage of the working class and also working class organizations, as a result of which many issues pertaining to them began to be reflected in the discussions on workers’ rights and women’s equality. Working class women participated in a big way in working class movements.

Discontent among nationalities

The relationship between the Russian Romanov dynasty and the other nationality regions was almost colonial in nature, with these areas being used as sources of raw material for development of industries in Russian regions. These nationalities such as the Caucasians, the Polish, the Kazakhs, the Latvians, the Estonians and others played an important role in overthrowing the Russian autocracy.

Leadership and vision

Many political groups were active during the first half of the 20th century, but they were illegal and had to work underground, hunted by the Tsarist police and subject to severe repression and punishment if found out. However, they played a very heroic and significant role in raising the consciousness of the people-particularly of the workers and peasants-through political education, political propaganda and agitation. Millions of organizations were formed on the ground among all sections of society-of workers, peasants and soldiers, of students and teachers, of all types of employees, and of women. Many of these organizations had close links with political parties and were very responsive to political discussions and ideas.

The important political groups were Populists (in late 19th century) and Social Revolutionaries, various types of Liberals and the Social Democrats (Marxists). Social Democrats had two parties, Bolshevik (meaning majority in Russian) and Menshevik (meaning minority). They got these names after they split as a result of differences.

These groups had different ideas about how to bring about a revolution, of how to change the Russian society and political system.

Lenin was the most important leader of the Russian revolution of 1917. Another was Trotsky. Both were Bolsheviks. It would be correct to say however that there were thousands of important leaders, both men and women, just as there were in our freedom movement, without whose work, heroism and sacrifices the revolution could not have succeeded.

Stages of the revolution

The Russian revolutionary movement emerged in the 19th century, when some members of the aristocracy began to feel that the Tsarist political system was too oppressive and Russian society too unjust. They particularly felt for the plight of the peasantry.

These members of the aristocracy and the newly emerged middle class formed the intelligentsia, who criticized Russian society and political system and worked for its transformation. They formed secret societies and small political groups. They could not campaign or work openly to spread their ideas because of the strict censorship and ban on political activity. They became dedicated revolutionaries. They demanded a constitution and elections. When caught they were given cruel punishments. Yet the movement grew. By early 20th century the Russian revolutionary movement was a mass based movement, and ‘Revolution’ became the rallying cry.

The first major popular attack on the Autocracy, took place in 1905[2]. This great revolutionary upsurge was unsuccessful, and the movements were suppressed. But because the people learnt many important lessons through this experience, Lenin later called it the “dress rehearsal’ for the 1917 revolution. The main demands were a “democratic republic’, universal franchise, land for peasantry, and higher wages and a shorter working day for workers. Women’s equality, right of self determination for the different nationalities and abolition of capital punishment were other demands.

For the first time there was a General Strike. Sections of the army and navy also revolted, and a revolutionary organization of the working class known as Soviet was formed. It played a leading role in the revolution.

Many years of repression followed, but the revolutionary movement picked up again during World War I as larger and larger sections of people began to directly feel the impact of war and to understand the nature of tsarist policies. The puppet Cabinet did not function and the weak parliament (Duma) could not address popular aspirations.

By 1917 majority of the people of the Russian empire were determined to overthrow the Autocracy and to take matters in their own hands. In this atmosphere the February revolution was sparked off by shortages of bread, and a demonstration of women who called on the soldiers to support their brothers and sisters rather than the Tsar who oppressed them. The soldiers who were also fed up with the war did not fire on the agitating people.

A few days later came the demand: ‘Down with Autocracy’. Red flags dominated the cityscape of St Petersburg, the capital city, and soon the entire territory of the Empire was aflame with cries of revolution. The Autocracy was overthrown and replaced by a Provisional Government headed by Aleksander Kerensky. The workers and peasants played an important role in this change, and the bourgeoisie supported it. Even the soldiers came to the side of the revolutionary forces. St. Petersburg was renamed Petrograd.

The Provisional government created conditions for political freedoms, such as right of forming organizations and freedom of speech, but did not bring any major change in policies which affected people; it could not have, as this government was dominated by parties representing landlord and capitalist interests. It continued with the war and there was no redistribution of land thereby leading to continued misery for masses. The workers, soldiers and peasants, along with the Bolshevik party, therefore continued with their movements which culminated in the October-Bolshevik revolution of 1917.

The Bolsheviks were the only political group in tune with the aspirations of the people in 1917: they called for an immediate end to War; they demanded land for peasants, workers’ control over industries, and right of nations to self determination. Peace! Bread! Land! Democracy! Became the slogans in all the mass organizations of the workers, peasants and soldiers all over the country, and Bolsheviks were elected to their leaderships in a majority in these organizations.

The October 1917 revolution thus had a popular base and was not simply a military coup that overthrew the Provisional Government. You should also remember that although it is known as October revolution, it took place on November 7 1917, and is celebrated on November 7, because after the revolution Russia adopted the international calendar. Prior to that Russia was following it is own calendar which was 10 days behind the calendar followed internationally.

Policies and impact of the revolution

Revolutionary Russia not only changed the policies of Tsarist Russia, it also did many things that were different and more just than what existed in capitalist countries of Europe. Its policies laid the foundations of socialism in Russia.

Knowing fully well that people were tired of war and wanted peace, and that war was not in the interest of people in any country, one of its first acts was to withdraw from the war by signing the Brest Litovsk treaty even at the cost of losing some territory to Germany.

The Bolsheviks abolished private property in the means of production i.e., land, factories, and banks, all of which were nationalized and now owned by the state and not by private owners. This means that they could not be used to exploit the labour of others and make private profit anymore. Workers organizations had a greater say in the decision making processes.

Through the land decree of November 1917 landlordism was abolished and land was given over to peasants for hereditary use. Peasants could not sell or mortgage the land or use it to exploit the labour of others, but they were masters of their land and enjoyed the full fruits of their labour and produce from the land. They did not have to depend on former landlords in any way, whose powers over rural economy and society were demolished.

These measures meant that the Russian people became equal beneficiaries of the resources and economy of the country. It also became possible now to plan centrally for the benefit of all parts and all sections of the people. This system of centralized planning was seen as important and was adopted by many countries, including India.

The new constitution guaranteed free medical care, free and equal education for all, an unemployment allowance, equal access to culture and cultural advancement. Not all of this was immediately available, but by making these a right for all, the new regime showed the direction of its policy and commitment. The differentials between people holding middle class type of jobs and those working on land or in the factories were far less than in other countries-both in terms of salaries and entitlement to facilities provided by the state. Standard of life was not dependent on whether one could personally pay, because many things did not have to be paid for.

Women were not just considered equal; a lot of measures were taken to make their equal participation in social and political life possible: maternity leave, public canteens, free crèches at workplaces etc.

The new government renounced unilaterally all the unequal treaties which the Czar's government had imposed on countries like China, Iran and Afghanistan and proclaimed the right of all people to equality and self-determination.

They considered their state the ‘dictatorship of the working class’ because the working, ordinary people and their welfare was now the basis of polity and policies.

The new regime gave moral and some physical support to independence struggles against colonial rule, and recognized the right of all nationalities to decide their own future. For this reason the Russian revolution was lauded in all Asian countries and inspired people all over the world. China and India were also greatly influenced by the Russian revolution. There was spread of socialist ideas.

Nationalist leaders in India realized the significance of the intervention of peasants and workers in political struggles. People in India sensed that a ‘kisan-mazdoor raj’ has been established in Russia. The 1920’s thus saw the formation of Workers and Peasants Parties, the All India Trade Union Congress, and increasing efforts in India to organize workers and peasants.

The imperialist countries were however opposed to the Revolution and they sent their troops to defeat the new Bolshevik regime. They were not successful, and the new revolutionary regime survived, due mainly to the support of the people and the dedication of the revolutionaries.