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Oceans are key to sustaining life on the planet. They cover more than 70% of the Earth and they constitute one of the most essential bases for human life, either because of the richness of their living resources and unlimited energy sources, or simply because, by connecting us all, oceans offer an essential means of transportation for people and trade. Marine biodiversity among other things produces a third of the oxygen we breathe, moderates global climate conditions, and provides valuable source of protein for human consumption. Furthermore, the potential energy output derived from oceans well exceeds current and future human energy needs. Finally, 80% of the volume of global trade is seaborne; representing 70% of its value, which is expected to increase by 36% by 2020.
India was the first country to be accorded the status of a Pioneer Investor and was allocated an exclusive area in the central Indian Ocean by the UN for exploration and utilisation of resources. India has already sent 13 scientific research expeditions to Antarctica and has two permanent stations in Antarctica. In May 2007, India got approval from the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Committee (ATCM) to construct its third station at Larsemann Hills in Antartica.
Convention of the UN Conference on the Law of the Seas has established a new international order for the oceans. India ratified the convention in June 1995
Economic jurisdiction of coastal states extends to an area ranging form 200 to 350 miles from the coastline. According to this regime, nearly 2.02 million square kilometers of area, or nearly two-third of the land mass has come under India’s national jurisdiction. In this area, the exclusive right to utilize living and non-living resources vests with the nation.
India has been recognised as “Pioneer Investor” in an area of upto 50000 square kilometers in the deep seas for the recovery and processing of polymetallic nodules.
The sea has been a source of livelihood to large number of people. Even now Indian public and private enterprises do use ocean resources. The country is producing significant quantities of fish and hydrocarbons form the sea.
Ocean development in India
Government of India established Department of Ocean Development in 1981. From March, 1982 it became a separate Department.The ocean policy was enunciated in 1982. Department of Ocean Development has been functioning as a nodal Department for organising, coordinating and promoting ocean development activities in the country, in line with the Ocean Policy Statement
India is a Member of the Antarctic Treaty System with a consultative status, Council of Managers of the National Antarctic Programme, Standing Committee on Antarctic Logistics and Operations, Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research.
India’s nominees are also working as elected members in various important institutions established under the UN Convention on Law of the Sea such as: International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, Finance Committee of the International Seabed Authority (ISBA), Legal and Technical Commission of the Council of the Authority, Commission on the Limits of Continental Shelf, etc.
India also is actively taking part in the Inter-Governmental Oceanographic Commission and Regional Seas Programmes.
The organization and activities of the Department and the programmes and projects implemented by the Department are given in the organization chart furnished below:
While formulating the research and development programmes, stress is laid on accelerated development of applied technology and the benefits those will give to society.
Intensive review and evaluation of the Antarctic research programme had led to revised priorities in scientific programmes taking into consideration the increasing importance and the relevance of Antarctic research in understanding the global change and environment.
In the field of Polymetallic Nodules Programme, emphasis so far had been on the utilisation of the technologies in the survey and exploration. However, in the recent years, the programme has been expanded to development of technologies for deep sea mining, recovery of metals, etc., and for application in our Exclusive Economic Zone.
Priority is also being accorded to integrated coastal and marine area management, ocean observation and information services including use of satellite remote sensing for exploration and sustainable utilisation of the living and non-living resources, pollution monitoring, monitoring of climate change, sea level variations, etc., collection and dissemination of oceanographic and meteorological data on real-time basis, development of technologies for tapping ocean energy, coastal and environmental engineering, marine instrumentation, enhancement of marine living resources and coastal community programmes. Continued support is being provided to Universities and R&D Institutions for conducting basic and applied research in various disciplines related to ocean sciences and technology and establishment of Ocean Science and Technology Cells.
The Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) is mandated to provide the nation with best possible services in forecasting the monsoons and other weather/climate parameters, ocean state, earthquakes, tsunamis and other phenomena related to earth systems through well integrated programmes. The Ministry also deals with science and technology for exploration and exploitation of ocean resources (living and non-living), and play nodal role for Antarctic/Arctic and Southern Ocean research. The Ministry mandate is to look after Atmospheric Sciences, Ocean Science & Technology and Seismology in an integrated manner.
The Earth Commission, Ministry of Earth Sciences works in Mission Mode based on Commission structure, is responsible for formulating policies, oversee implementation of policies and programs in mission mode, and ensure the necessary interdisciplinary integration.
The various Units under the Ministry of Earth Sciences are: India Meteorological Department (IMD), National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF), Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) Pune, National Centre for Earth Science Studies (NCESS), Thiruvananthapuram and Earthquake Risk Evaluation Centre (EREC) under the Atmospheric Sciences and Seismology sector; National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) Chennai, National Centre for Antarctic & Ocean Research (NCAOR) Goa, Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) Hyderabad, Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Project Directorate (ICMAM-PD) Chennai, and Centre for Marine Living Resources & Ecology (CMLRE) Kochi under the Ocean Science & Technology sector. MoES aims to create a framework for understanding the complex interactions among key elements of the Earth System, namely ocean, atmosphere and solid earth, by encompassing national programmes in Ocean science, meteorology, climate, environment and seismology.
Antarctica, a unique land mass 98% of which is covered by ice was once contiguous with India as a part of Gondwanaland. This seventh continent , much larger than India and China put together has been source of interest for the inquisitive minds for a long time. Remote and extreme, the Antarctica is now emerging as an important key in the understanding of global and environmental concerns. Its unique features have provided scientists with special opportunities over the last 35 years to investigate the origin of the continents, the pollution of the globe, and changes in world climate.
Since 1981, Department of Ocean Development has been launching scientific research expeditions on annual basis to Antarctica to utilize its singular environment as a great natural laboratory for scientific investigations. Geological and geophysical research in Antarctica provides new insights into earth’s geological history and information on paleoclimatic continents. Environment of Antarctica provide an opportunity to study atmospheric science, depletion of ozone, adaptation of organisms to extreme environmentetc.
By virtue of its contribution to Antarctic science and its presence in Antarctica, India has been accorded consultative status in the Antarctica Treaty System. It is a member of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), Standing Committee on Antarctic Logistics (SCALOP) and a party of the Convention on Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). India is a founder member of Asian Forum for Polar Science (AFOPS) which is active not only in Antarctica but also in Arctic. In 2006, India joined Dronning Maud Land Air Operators Network (DROMLAN) as one of the founder member. The membership entitles us to use the air services to special Runways existing CDML region at reasonable cost sharing basis.
The scientific activities of India which started on a modest scale has evolved into a comprehensive ongoing programme that has been subject to continuous updating in accordance with the national priorities and global perspectives. To carry out its scientific programmes India established to first station at Dakshin Gangotri in 1983. The second permanent station Maitri was established at Schimacher ranges in 1989. Dakshin Gangotri is now being used as supply base and transit camp. Maitri Station is manned throughout the year round scientific activities. Efforts are being made to connect the computer of Maitri Station to the Educational and Research Network (ERNET) of Department of Electronics; this would provide data transfer facilities through computer and would facilitate scientists to get in touch with Research scientific data and information. Logistical personnel are obtained form the Defence Services.
XIX Antarctic Expedition For the first time in the history of Indian Polar Science Programme, the 19th Indian Scientific expedition to Antarctica was launched from Cape Town, South Africa, on 9th December 1999, keeping in view the likely scientific and economic benefits and future international cooperation in the field of polar science between India and other countries. This heralds another scientific feat in the realms of polar science at the end of this millennium and demonstrates the capabilities and interest of India to pursue a well-focused scientific campaign from a pristine scientific platform provided by Antarctica.
In addition to the ongoing programmes several new experiments have been initiated during the course of this expedition, which includes: Study of earth-air current systems to give an insight to the deep space processes, Experiments on crack propagation of the ice-shelf in order to understand the dynamics and processes of Iceberg generation, Installation of a number of automatic weather stations to measure energy balance and albedo factors of the ice, as a part of global change studies, Reconstruction of the past climatic and vegetative history through the study of organo-debris present in the fresh water lake sediments of Antarctica, Establishment of an environment monitoring laboratory for the first time at Maitri in order to carry out an year round assessment of the status of air, noise, water biological and land environment of Antarctica.
The brief scientific and logistic activities of this expedition are as follows:
Atmospheric Sciences: Geomagnetic studies using fluxgate magnetometers and riometers,Climatological and Meteorological data archival
Earth Sciences:Geological mapping and Glaciological observations, Tele-seismic propagation studies,Planetary geodetic measurements,Topographical mapping
Global Change: Snow drift and albedo measurements Generation & propagation of cracks on the ice-shelf Palyno-stratigraphic studies of the lakes
Biological Sciences:Biodiversity of Bryophytes of Antarctica, Bio-ecological studies of invertebrate fauna Microbial community structure by culture independent methods
Environment conservation: Environment impact assessment studies through assessment of existing status of air, noise, water, biological and land environment parameters. Preparation of an effective environment management plan.
Human Biology: Ultra violet radiation and cold stress Psycho-physiological investigations
Engineering & Communication:Structural engineering studies, Adaptive communication technologies Wind energy utilization and application of fuel cells in Antarctica.
India has established a National Antarctic Data Centre at the National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR) at Goa, which will soon be linked with Antarctic Master Directory. The NCAOR established as a national endeavor to develop expertise and excellence in polar sciences and logistic activities would plan, co-ordinate and execute the entire scientific and logistic activities of Indian Antarctic programme besides encouraging cooperative/joint research projects both at national and international level, particularly in the field of global change.
Presently the data relating to Marine living resources cover areas only upto 50-70 m depth. While the region upto 50-70 m is exploited almost to the maximum sustainable levels, the offshore region is largely under-exploited and there is reluctance on the available resources. A reliable estimation of these resources and the understanding of the likely potential is called for. As observed by the UN Conference on Straddling and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, some form of an international involvement in the management of the high seas fishery resources is necessary. As the resources upto 50-70 m depth stand fully exploited there is an urgent need to have a better understanding of the resources and potential of the living resources of the Indian EEZ.
Keeping in view the aforesaid, a multi-disciplinary and multi- institutional programme aimed at making an assessment of the marine living resources beyond 70 m depth within the Indian EEZ and correlating the fish abundance / availability with the oceanographic parameters, has been initiated during the 9th Five Year Plan.
The major objectives of the programme inter-alia are:
Oceans are a wealth of organisms with pharmaceutical value. The scientific community is focusing its efforts on the isolation and characterization of biologically active compounds derived from marine organisms. These compounds generally are small molecules ideally suited to serve either as themselves or through chemical modification as potential new pharmaceutical agents for the treatment of a variety of ailments including cancer.
The national project on Drugs from Sea taken up by the Department during 1990-91, is a multi-institutional project aiming at developing potential drugs and chemicals from the marine flora and fauna. Over 450 species of marine biota which have been subjected to evaluation, have yielded valuable clues for developing potent drugs. This project which entered its 3rd phase in 1996-97, has led to identification of five marine organisms showing potent activity as anti-diabetic, anti-viral, anti-anxiety, anti-cholestrol and larvicidal agents.
India was accorded the status of a Regional Pioneer Investor in 1987 pursuant to our efforts and progress in the identification and assessment of the polymetallic nodules in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB). The country has since made considerable progress towards endowment assessment technology and manpower development towards exploitation of the potential resources. The programme consists of four components - Survey & Exploration of nodule in the CIOB; Environmental Impact Assessment Study; Development of technologies for mining of nodules; and Extraction of metals. The programme is guided and reviewed by the PMN Board of Management.
Polymetallic nodules on the ocean floor are considered to be treasure house of much needed metals. The potato-shaped, largely porous nodules, are found in abundance carpetting the sea floor of world Oceans. These nodules are of much economic importance because, besides maganese and iron, they contain nickel, copper, cobalt, lead, molybdenum, cadmium, vanadium, titanium, of which cobalt, copper, and manganese are considered to be of strategic importance. The economic potential of some of these metals is known to be enormous. Survey confirmed that about 15 million sq. km. of the Indian Ocean have nodules of different size and quality. The nodules are found mostly at depths ranging from 3500m to 6000m. After a very intensive survey, India identified sites in the central Indian Ocean having nodules deposits. Pursuant to vigorous sailing and bathymetric survey, International Seabed Authority allocated to India an area of 1,50,000 square kilometer in the Central Indian Basin in 1987 and India became the first Pioneer investor for exploration of nodules from seabed. India has developed considerable expertise in metallurgical processes and is at an advanced stage of establishing two or three pilot plants for metal extraction from nodules. A nucleus for developing a test mining system has also been established. India’s potential capabilities in deep seabed mining have been recognised worldwide. Norway, Finland and Japan have offered assistance for developing a test mining system jointly. The Department of Ocean Development which has been designated as the nodal agency responsible for implementing the deep seabed mining programme , has drawn up a long term plan aiming to fulfil its obligations as Pioneer Investor as well as reach the stage for seeking production authorisation as quickly as possible. Various activities conducted under the program are:-
1. Survey and Exploration
2. Environmental Impact Assessment Study
3. Design and Development of test seabed mining system
4. Extractive Metallurgy
The 7500 kms coastline of India, a very productive stretch of coastal sea, supports a wide variety of economic activities. Multifarious industrial complexes, fisheries, tourism activities, human settlements, to name a few, are coming up along the coastline. Ever increasing population and rapid developmental activities along the coastal zone, makes the coastal zone management a complex one, further increase in offshore activities for oil and gas extraction, mining of seabed minerals, renewable energy from sea, shipping and marine transportation add complexity to the overall situation. The main aim of the coastal zone and island programme of DOD is to provide basic data and information required for the effective management of the marine environment, its conservation and develop technological aids for harnessing its resources.
NIOT has taken up new initiatives towards helping island communities in their needs relating to Ocean Science and Technology as well as marine resource enhancement. The first activity taken up by NIOT is a programme on lobster resource enhancement for islands under the DOD project on Living Marine Resources Enhancement (LMRE).
The programme on lobster resource enhancement is already underway by utilizing the hatchery facility of Tamil Nadu Fisheries Development Corporation (TNFDC) available at Neelankarai, Chennai. Several experiments have already been carried out in the following areas:
a. Fattening of spiny lobster Panulirus homarus using different live feeds (mussels and clams)
b. Biochemical analysis of lobsters and live feeds
c. Water quality and disease management
d. Spawning and larval rearing, and
e. Survey of lobster resources in Gulf of Mannar and Andaman Islands.
In a study conducted on lobster fattening using gray clam as live feed, a remarkable increment in body weight (i.e. around 35 g/month) has been achieved. However, most of the animals were found to be losing body pigmentation. Another experiment was conducted using green mussel as a feed source in place of clam. The animals, which lost pigmentation were fed with mussel meat and maintained in a dark environment. All the animals regained pigmentation and also underwent moulting faster than clam fed animals. Although the feeding rate was slightly higher for the clam fed animals, the gross conversion efficiency and food conversion ratio were found to be almost similar. The various biochemical analysis such as protein, free amino acids, carbohydrates, free & bound sugars, protease, ?-amylase and chitinase indicate the suitability of mussel meat as a better alternative to the clam as feed source for lobsters.
During the fattening of lobsters, various hydrobiological parameters such as temperature, pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen, nitrite, nitrate, silicate, ammonia and phosphate in the source water as well as the experimental tanks were estimated. The phytoplankton species present in the source water were also identified in order to utilize them as feed for larvae. The occurrence of various protozoans, total heterotrophic bacterial population and Vibrios load was observed in the body surface of lobster, live feeds and water (both from tanks and source). The animals with tail rot syndrome were successfully treated with appropriate concentration of malachite green and 100% recovery was observed in 20-22 days.
At the new campus of NIOT, R & D laboratories, which will cater to all the analytical requirements of the LMRE project, have been organised. All major and minor equipment are commissioned and the laboratory is fully operational now.
A survey on landing of lobsters at various sites in Gulf of Mannar and Andaman islands has been completed by December 1999. It indicates a decline in landings at various sites, a trend which was in evidence from previous surveys of lobster resources during the last few years.
The activities of erstwhile Andaman Nicobar Centre for Ocean Development (ANCOD) of Department of Ocean Development has been integrated with NIOT as Andaman and Nicobar Centre for Ocean Science and Technology (ANCOST) in order to implement the various core activities previously initiated under the LMRE programme. For this purpose, already existing facilities like boats and sea water pumps have been repaired and commissioned. A layout of new laboratory building has been finalised and the building is expected to be functional very soon. Using the farm facility in Minnie Bay, the problems associated with the culture of lobster and sea ranching of its early life stages are being examined.
The draft Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ), 2018, which was released by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), has the potential to change the way coastal stretches in India are governed. India’s coastline runs over 7,500 kilometers.
The new draft if implemented will not only have an effect on how common areas used by fisher folk are managed, but also bifurcate coastal zones along rural areas based on population density. Environmentalists claim that the draft has opened up fragile inter-tidal areas to real estate agents, and framed with an intent to favour large-scale industry at the cost of fishing communities.
The purpose of the current notifications vis-à-vis the previous one released in 2011 remains more or less the same. The new draft aims to conserve and protect the unique environment of coastal stretches and marine areas, besides livelihood security to the fisher communities and other local communities in the coastal areas and to promote sustainable development based on scientific principles taking into account the dangers of natural hazards, such as the sea level rise due to global warming.
A major change in the new draft pertains to the CRZ limits on land along “tidal influenced water bodies”. The proposed limit has been reduced from 100 meters to 50 meters or the width of the creek, whichever is less.
The draft makes the National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management (NCSCM) the final authority to lay down standards for High Tide Line (HTL). Earlier the demarcation was carried out by one of the agencies authorized by MoEF, on recommendations of the NCSCM. The hazard line, which was demarcated by the Survey of India (SOI), has been delinked from the CRZ regulatory regime, and will now be used as a “tool” for disaster management and planning of “adaptive and mitigation measures.” It has been pointed out that the 2011 notification placed a lot of importance on the hazard line. But, 2018 notification takes away the protection that the hazard line could provide; instead, it merely states that the hazard line should be used as a tool for disaster management. This means that one can build in these areas after preparing an environment assessment report stating that certain precautions have been considered. Hence there exists an apprehension that rules might have been diluted and go against the environmental interests.
CRZ-III areas i.e. relatively undisturbed land have been divided into two categories:
a) CRZ-III A refers to rural areas with a population density of 2,161 people per square kilometer or more as per the 2011 Census. Such areas shall have a “No Development Zone” (NDZ) of 50m from the High Tide Line (HTL).
b) CRZ-III B refers to rural areas with a population density lesser than 2,161 people per square kilometer. Such areas shall continue to have an NDZ of 200m from the HTL.
However, various intellectuals have questioned the accuracy of data that is used for classification. It has also been pointed out that revenue records are not available in some of the CRZ-III areas.
Only those projects located in CRZ-I (environmentally most critical) and CRZ-IV (water and seabed areas) shall require MoEF clearance. All other projects shall be considered by Coastal Zone Management Authorities (CZMAs) in the states and union territories.
The draft also allows for construction of roads and roads on stilts, “by way of reclamation in CRZ-1 areas”, only in exceptional cases for “defence, strategic purposes and public utilities,” to be recommended by the CZMA and approved by the Ministry. However, it does not explicitly state what strategic projects are.
Moreover, it notes that in cases where roads are constructed through mangroves or are likely to damage the latter, “a minimum three times the mangrove area affected/ destroyed/ cut during the construction… shall be taken up for compensatory plantation. Such a proposal seems good on paper but impractical.
While the 2011 notification had frozen the floor space index or floor area ratio for CRZ-II areas at 1991 Development Control Regulation (DCR) levels, the new draft proposes to de-freeze the same and permit FSI for construction projects as prevailing on the date of the new notification. Moreover, it must be pointed out that certain kinds of buildings in metro cities such as Chennai and Mumbai have been exempted from CRZ -II areas. Certain buildings will be managed by FSI through Town and Country Planning Department, and will not require CRZ clearances.
Sagar Purvi and Sagar Paschimi
Two Coastal Research vessels, namely, Sagar Purvi and Sagar Paschimi have been built in India during the year 1996 under a Plan scheme of DOD. These vessels are being used for the coastal oceanographic research programmes of DOD and NIOT. The vessel times are also made available to public and private sectors on a payment basis depending on the nature of the programme. The vessels are mostly used for the COMAPS programme of DOD. The task of operation, management and implementation of the cruise programme have been assigned to NIOT.
In 2006, they acquired an ocean research vessel BTV Sagar Manjusha a specialised vessel built by Hindustan Shipyard Limited (HSL) for deployment of data buoys and for various other scientific activities. It can accommodate eleven scientists, eight officers and ten crew. It is equipped with two bow thrusters, specialised deck cranes, deep sea winch with A-Frame for carrying out scientific activities.
Later in 2008, a world class ocean research vessel christened, ORV Sagar Nidhi joined the Indian fleet of research vessels. ORV Sagar Nidhi is only of its kind in India, built at Fincantieri, Italy. ORV Sagar Nidhi, India's pride and most sophisticated ice class multi-disciplinary vessel of the sub-continent is having a fully automatic diesel-electric propulsion with azimuth and bow thrusters, Dynamic Positioning class II (DP II) system, a deep sea winch to hoist 60 tonnes from a depth of 6000 m with highly advanced operational success. This vessel is being utilized for carrying out multidisciplinary research and technology demonstration work viz. Deep sea mining, Remotely Operable Submersible (ROSUB), Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV), Exploration of gas hydrates, oceanographic, meteorological, geological research. It is designed with blue water capability upto 10000 nautical miles for voyages lasting upto 45 days. ORV Sagar Nidhi, is also the first Indian flagged research vessel that reached the 66'S latitude, facing 11 storms and 73nm/hr wind speed, witnessing nature's harshest conditions and awesome breathtaking sceneries of Antarctica.
The FORV (Fishery and Oceanographic Research Vessel ) Sagar Sampada, a multi-purpose fisheries and oceanographic research vessel has been carrying out survey of the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone ever since 1984. FORV Sagar Sampada continued investigations on Living Resources and the oceanographic factors influencing their distribution.
Oceanographic Research Vessel (ORV) Sagar Kanya has so far undertaken 14 cruises for a number of programmes such as demonstration of shallow seabed mining by deploying the crawler, data buoy, BOBMEX, LOICZ, OCM validation, etc. Some of the major scientific activities carried out on board Sagar Kanya include:
The Russian Vessel A.A Sidorenko, which has been taken on wet lease from the State Geological Enterprise Yuzhmorgeologiya under the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation from July, 1999 completed six cruises to the Central Indian Ocean Basin and collected about 80 tonnes of polymetallic nodules for extractive metallurgy. A cruise was taken off Tuticorin for making an assessment of the site selected for Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) programme.
It is a marine acoustic research ship (MARS) owned by the Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory (NPOL), maintained and operated by the Indian Navy, and based at Southern Naval Command, Kochi. The ship was built by Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers, Kolkata, launched in May 1991, and commissioned in 1994. It is similar in design to the Sandhayak-class survey ships, but with the superstructure positioned amidships and a helipad forward.
The Geological Survey of India (GSI) will induct Rs. 600-crore state-of-the-art research vessel Samudra Ratnakar built by Korean manufacturer Hyundai Heavy Industries for survey and exploration of the seabed in Indian and international waters. It will be docked in Mangalore.
The Mangalore-based Marine and Coastal Survey Division has already conducted over 700 research trips on its deep sea research vessel R.V. Samudra Manthan and twin coastal survey vessels, R.V. Samudra Kaustubh and R. V. Samudra Shaudhikama.
Ocean Observations and Information Services (OOIS)
During the Eighth Plan the Department implemented several research programmes viz. Marine Satellite Information Services (MARSIS),National Ocean Information System (NOIS) , Sea Level Monitoring and Modelling (SELMAM), Data Buoy Programme and Joint Global Ocean Flux Studies (JGOFS) to understand the role of ocean and its processes and for generation of user oriented coastal and ocean data and data products like waves, winds, temperature, current, salinity, upwelling, potential fishing zone information, coastal maps etc., for supporting coastal and off-shore developmental activities and oceanographic research. The OOIS also has plans for developing systems for Ocean State Forecast, on an experimental basis by the end of the 9th Plan. The programme consists of four major projects viz. Ocean Observing Systems, Ocean Information Services, Satellite and Coastal Oceanographic Research and Ocean Modelling and Dynamics.
CCMLR, an intergovernmental organisation under the Antarctic Treaty System with 23 member countries and 6 state parties to the Convention, sets guidelines for optimum exploitation of living resources of Antarctic waters based on an ecosystem approach.
The need for CCAMLR to exert effective control over fishing activities taking place in contravention of the Convention or of the spirit in which it was negotiated was highlighted by India. CCAMLR-XVIII was acknowledged by the member countries as one of the most successful meetings of CCAMLR in adopting a Catch Documentation Scheme for tooth fish (Dissostichus spp.) with a view to conserve the tooth fish stocks, which since years has been threatened due to the high scale of illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing.
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) established in 1960 under UNESCO, is promoting global co-operation in marine scientific investigations, ocean services and capacity building in developing countries through the concerted efforts of all the member states. There are a total of 127 countries as members of the IOC. India is a member of IOC and presently is a member on its Executive Council. India is actively participating in all the meetings and sessions of the IOC and is contributing to the growth of oceanographic research and services. Being a country with significant advancements in oceanographic research, India is more a contributor to the cause of the international co-operation in oceanographic science and services than a recipient.
Some of the important aspects such as draft mining code, draft environmental guidelines for exploration of polymetallic nodules are deliberated by the Council and Legal & Technical Commission of the Authority, respectively.
National Institute of Ocean Technology at Chennai established by DOD as its technical arm has completed 6 years of technology development activities. NIOT’s activities are in the areas of Ocean Energy, Deep sea mining, Coastal and Environmental Engineering and Marine Instrumentation. Two pioneering projects are in the area of mining technology demonstration and design and installation of 1 MW floating OTEC pilot plant. A new activity, which has been added to NIOT is the provision of science and technology inputs for the Island communities. Other operational programmes handled by NIOT are National Data Buoy Programme (NDBP) and Operation and Management of coastal Research Vessels owned by DOD and AA Sidorenko.
The major programme of the group is the Design, Installation, Commissioning and Demonstration of the 1 MW (Gross) floating OTEC plant. This 1 MW floating OTEC plant working on the closed cycle principle with ammonia as the working fluid will be installed on a barge that is moored in a manner such that the 1m High Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE) pipe forms a part of the mooring, The detailed design of the power module has been completed. It consists of four numbers of titanium evaporator and four numbers of titanium condensers, a four stage axial turbine and pumps for operation of ammonia, cold and warm sea water circuits.
The titanium plate heat exchangers are the largest of its kind in the world. The Turbine is being manufactured indigenously and the design has been reviewed by an Expert Committee constituted by NIOT. The cold water pipe, which is of 1 m diameter and is made of HDPE will be towed horizontally to the OTEC site and upended for connection to the barge. In order to understand the issues associated with the power module of the OTEC plant, especially under off design conditions NIOT has also constructed a 1 kW demonstration OTEC plant, which consists of a warm water source, chiller, which serves as the cold water source and also has plate heat exchangers for evaporator and condenser.
The work on the fixed guide vane impulse turbine at the National Test Facility at Vizhinjam was completed. The hydrodynamic efficiency of the Backward Bent Ducted Buoy (BBDB) was measured in the wave energy basin at IIT Chennai.
Development of technology for deep sea mining of polymetallic nodules is one of the main activities of this mission. The progress under this mission is reported under the Polymetallic Nodules Programme of the Department.
Under this mission an underwater thruster is being developed for operation at 1000 metre depth. The project involves multi-institutional participation by PSG College of Technology and CMERI, Durgapur. The thruster will be manufactured and testing will be taken up shortly. In addition, prototypes of underwater electrical connectors have been designed and manufactured for 1000 metre operation and are being tested by NIOT.
A novel jet pump with a non-axisymetric suction has been developed suitable for handling large solid particles. The pump has been tested in an experimental set up (50 mm diameter pipeline) at IIT Chennai for four jet nozzles (8.8 mm – 17.5 mm diameter) using gravel (3mm-10 mm size) for a maximum delivered concentration of 25% by weight. In the next phase the pump will be tested in a pilot plant that is being developed (200 mm diameter pipeline and 125 tonnes per hour capacity) using gravel (maximum size : 30mm). Efforts to patent this novel design are in progress.
The major activities under this mission in the current year are in house modelling of coastal inundation due to storm surges and industry oriented consultancy services for coastal projects. Available numerical models for various coastal processes like MIKE- 21 and MIKE-3 are applied to Indian coastal environment conditions for providing typical solutions to industry.
Forecasting Models for Coastal Natural Disasters
NIOT has developed a finite element surge simulation model and it has been benchmarked with MIKE-21. The model has been calibrated with data on previous cyclones. Estimation of inundation is interpolated into the finite element model. This model is being applied to estimate inundation of Andhra coast during cyclone crossing.
Further, NIOT in collaboration with international consultants like Babtie International and Delft Hydraulics has undertaken a technical study towards Andhra Pradesh Hazard Mitigation and Emergency Cyclone Recovery project. The main objective of the project is to achieve sustained and effective wind, rainfall & storm surge forecasting for the AP Coastal region so as to reduce the loss of property. Experts of NIOT prepared a report on the existing surge simulation models in India and this formed the basis for evaluation of the existing models. Under this project, the mission also involves watershed and delta management including flood modelling in the cyclone prone areas.
The two projects executed by NIOT under the ICMAM project, WLA & EIA are proceeding on schedule and have been reviewed by World Bank during the Mid Term Review. The WLA project for Ennore has completed the three monitoring surveys and field experiments. Modeling has been initiated. The EIA guideline for Ports & Harbours has been reviewed by national experts and the preparation of final guidelines is under progress. These final guidelines will be distributed by DOD / MOEF.
Under the physical oceanographic component of COMAPS the first phase of sampling at Paradip, Visakhapatnam, Mangalore has been completed with the cooperation of NIO (Vizag & Kochi) and RRL Bhubaneswar. The second and third phases are due for completion by October 2000.
NIOT has completed the Seabed Engineering and Oceanographic surveys off Pettodai-Periyakuppam area near Cuddalore for development of Single Point Mooring off Cuddalore and Gopalpur. These investigations include collection and analysis of bathymetric data, sea bed morphology, sub seabed geology and shallow sampling of project area. Current and wave measurements were also made during monsoon periods.
Geophysical and geotechnical surveys which were taken up by NIOT for the Pipavav Gas Pipeline Project across the Gulf of Khambat, awarded to NIOT by M/S British Gas Private Limited during November, 1999 were completed in a record time of just over 2 1/2 months. This work includes bathymetric survey using Swathe and Echosounder, Side-scan sonar survey, geophysical survey, magnetometer survey and interpretation of geotechnical and geophysical parameters within the proposed pipeline corridors. This project also includes landfall survey consisting topographical survey, geophysical survey, soil resistance survey, geotechnical survey, onshore position control and seismic study. Geotechnical survey included grab sampling, vibro coring, rock coring and cone penetrometer, in-situ measurement, etc.
National Thermal Power Corporation has requested NIOT to study and recommend appropriate and cost effective coal transport logistics for their proposed 1000 MW power plant at Cheyyur, South of Madras. Oceanographic studies for development of marine facilities at Cheyyur to handle the required coal transport have been carried out. This study includes estimation of coal transport per ton basis for various options like offshore open jetty facility, shore based marine facilities and the required infrastructure like trestle and material handling equipment. NIOT has also undertaken a separate project for the study of area drainage scheme of the Cheyyur power plant area. This work involves field survey, modeling of hydrology and hydraulics and develop a solution for sustained drainage into the sea through the coastal inlet.
NIOT carried out environmental impact assessment for the new jetties proposed to be constructed by the Coast Guard & Indian Navy at Port Blair. The impact of disposal of dredge spoil has been studied for Gujarat Pipavav Port Ltd.
The Marine Instrumentation mission of NIOT is mainly oriented towards the goal of indigenous development of acoustic based instruments for marine and Oceanographic use which includes instruments for special applications such as underwater surveys and tidal level monitoring.
The Acoustic Tide Gauge (ATG) developed by NIOT has reached the stage of commercialization. An IP 65 qualified ATG has been working satisfactorily since April 1999 at Chennai Port Trust along with that of a Sutron gauge, U.S.A. installed in the vicinity. The tide data were validated by the Survey of India (SOI). The Survey Of India and NIOT have agreed to install three more gauges at Kochi, Mumbai and Port Blair. The performance of this gauge compares well with similar gauges from abroad but cost only half of them. Tide gauges with telephone modem facility for remote data logging is under development for installation in other countries in the region.
Abeacon lamp with an illuminative power of 80000 mcd for use of signaling the locations of data buoys or any structures situated in sea, has been developed using bright LED array, which are available in yellow or red colours. A prototype acoustic Pinger system has also been developed, integrated with an imported transducer and its performance were successfully tested at 1000m (100 bar) depth. A handheld digital portable current meter is getting ready for field operation from a laboratory model.
NIOT is also involved in the development of some special sensors/ transducers, which form the heart of any marine instrument. A 33kHz underwater transceiver for Echosounder is under development. Individual transducer element has been designed, fabricated and its underwater performance has been successfully evaluated. An array to give a 20deg beam width has been designed, constructed and the laboratory tests are under progress. The NIOT has also under taken development of a 32-element array in the laboratory. Another achievement is the technology demonstration of a single element underwater transmitter operating over a wide frequency range from 500Hz to 12 kHz, for the first time in the country. Further development of such a transducer for using in acoustic sub-bottom profiling application is underway. The development of an Integrated Underwater Survey System (IUSS), which comprises of a 33kHz echo- sounder, 2-16kHz acoustic sub-bottom Profiler and a 190-210 kHz Side Scan Sonar has also been undertaken. The processing software which controls the electronics, communicate to interfacing devices, storage data etc. has been completed. The system design on the hardware part of the total IUSS using a high end DSP has been finalized and the tow body design is under progress.
In order to consolidate the gains accrued from the Antarctic expeditions and to stimulate the research in the frontier area of polar science, the National Centre for Antarctic & Ocean Research (formerly Antarctic Study Centre) (NCAOR) has been established as an autonomous society of the Department of Ocean Development with effect from 25 May,1998.
The Centre has already established the basic infrastructure and computing facilities to cater to establishing the data base repository and modelling work related to the polar region and the southern oceans. The institute has a focused scientific mandate confined to undertaking research in those areas of polar science in the years to come, which otherwise are not being pursued by any institution or laboratory in the country. The scientific infrastructure and expertise will specifically be developed in the areas of palaeo-climate and palaeo-environment studies through analysis of ice and sediment cores; sea-ice atmosphere interaction; climate modelling through polar remote sensing; oceanography of the southern oceans; and cryobiology & environmental physiology. The Goa University and Mangalore University have already recognised NCAOR as a research centre for academic pursuit leading to doctoral degrees in polar science.
The mandate of the NCAOR is, to plan, promote, co-ordinate and execute the entire gamut of polar science and logistic activities of the country in order to ensure a perceptible and influential presence of India in Antarctica and uphold our strategic interests in the global framework of nations in the southern continent and the surrounding oceans.
A dedicated Indian National Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) was set up at Hyderabad in February 1999 as an autonomous body of the Department for generation and dissemination of user oriented data products, on operational basis. Near real-time data and data products such as Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and Potential Fishing Zone (PFZ) advisories, upwelling zones, maps, eddies, chlorophyll, suspended sediment load, etc., consultancy services to the corporate sector industries, States, central government will be available to the user agencies under one roof.
During the year generation and dissemination of SST and PFZ to 170 fish landing stations was continued. Validation campaign of Modular Opto-electronic Scanner (MOS) algorithms and OCEANSAT (IRS-P4) colour sensor for retrieval of chlorophyll data from the Indian ocean were generated. Action was initiated to set up various facilities such as infrastructure, manpower and equipment at INCOIS for operation of OIS.
Some aspects of ocean law affect relationships among nations. Issues of neutrality and belligerency that occur in wartime are dealt with in international law.
International relationships at sea are defined by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which resulted from the third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (1975-82). UNCLOS came into force in 1994; a year after Guyana became the 60th state to ratify it. The convention defines the rights and responsibilities of nations in their use of the world's oceans, establishing guidelines for businesses, the environment, and the management of marine natural resources. It addresses ocean law issues, including rights of navigation and overflight, fishing, marine scientific research, seabed minerals development, and marine environmental protection.
It allows each coastal nation to exercise sovereignty over a territorial sea up to 12 nautical mi (22.224 km) wide and jurisdiction over resources, scientific research, and environmental protection in an exclusive economic zone up to 200 nautical mi (370.4 km) offshore; beyond this zone, seabed minerals development will be regulated by an international body. The U.S. has not signed the accord because it objects to the system for minerals development in the international seabed, but it has generally endorsed all other provisions of the convention.
Department of Ocean Development is the nodal agency for implementation of the provisions of United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), in India. UNCLOS is an important instrument which establishes the framework and mechanisms for management of oceans.
In accordance with the provisions of UNCLOS, States are entitled to delineate the outer limits of the continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and are required to submit data for a claim within ten years from the date of ratification. Delineation of the continental margin in case of India is likely to give an additional area of about 1 million sq. km. outside the EEZ. This area is rich in non-living resources. Sedentary organisms if found beyond the limits of the EEZ, after proper delineation as stipulated in the Convention, would be the inherent resources of the coastal States, with no obligation to give any access for surplus. It will be possible for India to lay submarine cables and pipelines which are important for the communication purposes in this additional area.
The Commission on the Limits of Shelf has come out with the new revised scientific and technical guidelines for delineation of outer limits of continental shelf which are to be provisionally applied pending their formal adoption at the next session. During 1998-99, existing data were consolidated and the quantum of work identified, a trial cruise for bathymetric survey was undertaken and the specification of parameters for seismic data acquisition are in the process of finalisation. The indicative foot of the slope map off West Coast and East Coast was reconciled. A monitoring and review mechanism has also been established with the constitution of a Steering Committee, Standing Committees on Bathymetric Survey and Seismic Survey. The Standing Committees prepared cruise tracks for bathymetric and seismic survey. The Baseline Survey is being continued by National Hydrographic Office. Departmental vessel ORV Sagar Kanya covered a total of 2122 nautical miles of cruise lines in Arabian Sea off Goa during April - May, 1998 for acquisition of bathymetric data.
To date, 162 countries (excluding the USA which has signed, but not ratified) and the EC have ratified the convention.
In modern shipping laws, the key legislation to comply with is developed and regulated by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), which was created by the United Nations in 1958. The IMO focuses on improving safety at sea by developing international regulations that are followed by all shipping nations. It also sets out a number of international conventions specifically aimed at maritime safety, such as the Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS).
When a country adopts the rules of a specific convention, they are enforced through the nation’s courts. It is therefore down to the Government of each country to develop national laws to enforce the IMO conventions on ships that it flags. Most maritime law is adopted by all seafaring nations, but where the international law comes into conflict with national law, the national law of the country the ship is flagged to will be followed. For example, a ship flying a British flag will follow UK maritime law wherever she is located.
The key code for any ship operator is that of the International Management Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution Prevention (ISM), which established a global standard for the safe management and operation of ships. The objectives of the code are:
The ISM Code requires us to operate a Safety Management System (SMS), covering the following key areas:
Managing all of these elements effectively within National Marine Facilities Sea Systems ensures that our ships operate safely, effectively and within the limits of maritime law. Our compliance with the code is audited annually by the UK Maritime and Coastguard Authority (MCA), which issues a Document of Compliance, giving us a licence to operate.
The SMS incorporates compliance with the following conventions:
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