Science and technology in ancient and medieval India covered all the major branches of human knowledge and activities, including mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medical science and surgery, fine arts, mechanical and production technology, civil engineering and architecture, shipbuilding and navigation, sports and games

MATHEMATICS & ASTRONOMY

Mathematics represents a very high level of abstraction attained by human brain. In ancient India, roots to mathematics can be traced to Vedic literature, which are around 4000 years old. Between 1000 BC and 1000 AD, a number of mathematical treatises were authored in India. The success of Indian mathematics was mainly due to the fact that Indians had a clear conception of the abstract number as distinct from the numerical quantity of objects or spatial extension. India is the birth place of several mathematical concepts, including zero, the decimal system, algebra and algorithm, square root and cube root. Zero is a numeral as well as a concept. It owes its origin to the Indian philosophy which had a concept of 'sunya', literal translation of which is 'void' and zero emerged as a derivative symbol to represent this philosophical concept.

1.   Baudhayan: The value of pi was first calculated by him. pi is useful in calculating the area and circumference of a circle. What is known as Pythagoras theorem today is already found in Baudhayan’s Sulva Sutra, which was written several years before the age of Pythagoras.

2. Aryabhatta: Aryabhatta was a fifth century mathematician, astronomer, astrologer and physicist. He was a pioneer in the field of mathematics. At the age of 23, he wrote Aryabhattiya, which is a summary of mathematics of his time. There are four sections in this scholarly work. In the first section he describes the method of denoting big decimal numbers by alphabets. In the second section, we find difficult questions from topics of modern day Mathematics such as number theory, geometry, trigonometry and Beejganita (algebra). The remaining two sections are on astronomy.Aryabhatta showed that zero was not a numeral only but also a symbol and a concept. Discovery of zero enabled Aryabhatta to find out the exact distance between the earth and the moon. The discovery of zero also opened up a new dimension of negative numerals. In ancient India, the science of astronomy was well advanced. It was called Khagolshastra. Khagol was the famous astronomical observatory at Nalanda, where Aryabhatta studied. Disregarding the popular view that our planet earth is ‘Achala’ (immovable), Aryabhatta stated his theory that ‘earth is round and rotates on its own axis’

3.   Brahmgupta: In 7th Century, in his methods of multiplication, he used place value in almost the same way as it is used today. He introduced negative numbers and operations on zero into mathematics. He wrote Brahm Sputa Siddantika through which the Arabs came to know our mathematical system.

4.   Bhaskaracharya: He is famous for his 12^th century book Siddanta Shiromani. It is divided into four sections: Lilavati (Arithmetic), Beejaganit (Algebra), Goladhyaya (Sphere) and Grahaganit (mathematics of planets). Bhaskara introduced Chakrawat Method or the Cyclic Method to solve algebraic equations. This method was rediscovered six centuries later by European mathematicians, who called it inverse cycle.

5.   Mahaviracharya: There is an elaborate description of mathematics in Jain literature (500 B.C -100 B.C). Jain gurus knew how to solve quadratic equations. They have also described fractions, algebraic equations, series, set theory, logarithms and exponents in a very interesting manner. Jain Guru Mahaviracharya wrote Ganit Sara Sangraha in 850A.D., which is the first textbook on arithmetic in present day form. The current method of solving Least common Multiple (LCM) of given numbers was also described by him.

The 14th century Indian mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama, along with other mathematicians of the Kerala school, studied infinite series, convergence, differentiation, and iterative methods for solution of non-linear equations. Jyestadeva of the Kerala school wrote the first calculus text, the Yuktibhasa, which explores methods and ideas of calculus repeated only in seventeenth century Europe.

Astronomy

Ancient India's contributions in the field of astronomy are well known and well documented. The earliest references to astronomy are found in the Rig Veda, which are dated 2000 BC. During next 2500 years, by 500 AD, ancient Indian astronomy has emerged as an important part of Indian studies and its affect is also seen in several treatises of that period. In some instances, astronomical principles were borrowed to explain matters, pertaining to astrology, like casting of a horoscope. Apart from this linkage of astronomy with astrology in ancient India, science of astronomy continued to develop independently, and culminated into original findings, like:

• The calculation of occurrences of eclipses
• Determination of Earth's circumference
• Theorizing about the theory of gravitation
• Determining that sun was a star and determination of number of planets under our solar system

The Pleiades hold a prominent place as the mothers or wet nurses of the newborn infant in one of the most ancient and central Hindu myths, that of the birth of the war-god Rudra/Skanda, who evidently represents, among other things, the victorious rising sun (and as vernal sun the new year). The Pleiades are said to have been the wives of the seven sages, who are identified with the seven stars of the Great Bear.

The Great Bear's Old Tamil name elu-meen 'seven-star' corresponds to the combination of the pictograms '7' + 'fish', which alone constitutes the entire text of one finely carved Indus seal.

SCIENCES

The root to the concept of atom in ancient India is derived from the classification of material world in five basic elements by ancient Indian philosophers. These five 'elements' and such a classification existed since the Vedic times, around 3000 BC before. These five elements were the earth (prithvi), fire (agni), air (vayu), water (jaal) and ether or space (aksha). These elements were also associated with human sensory perceptions: earth with smell, air with feeling, fire with vision, water with taste and ether/space with sound. Later on, Buddhist philosophers replaced ether/space with life, joy and sorrow.

From ancient times, Indian philosophers believed that except ether or space, all other elements were physically palpable and hence comprised of small and minuscule particles of matter. They believed that the smallest particle which could not be subdivided further was paramanu (can be shortened to parmanu), a Sanskrit word. Paramanu is made of two Sanskrit words, param meaning ultimate or beyond and anu meaning atom. Thus, the term "paramanu" literally means 'beyond atom' and this was a concept at an abstract level which indicated the possibility of splitting atom, which is now the source of atomic energy. The term "atom" however should not be conflated with the concept of atom as it is understood today.

Kanada, a 6th century, Indian philosopher was the first person who went deep systematically in such theorization. Another Indian, philosopher Pakudha Katyayana, who was a contemporary of Buddha, also propounded the ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world. All these were based on logic and philosophy and lacked any empirical basis for want of commensurate technology. Similarly, the principle of relativity (not to be confused with Einstein's theory of relativity) was available in an embryonic form in the Indian philosophical concept of 'sapekshavad', the literal translation of this Sanskrit word is theory of relativity.

Scientists

1.   Kanad was a sixth century scientist of Vaisheshika School, one of the six systems of Indian philosophy. His original name was Aulukya. He got the name Kanad, because even as a child, he was interested in very minute particles called “kana”. His atomic theory can be a match to any modern atomic theory. According to Kanad, material universe is made up of kanas, (anu/atom) which cannot be seen through any human organ. These cannot be further subdivided.

2.   Varahamihira lived in Gupta period, Varahamihira made great contributions in the fields of hydrology, geology and ecology. He was one of the first scientists to claim that termites and plants could be the indicators of the presence of underground water. Another theory, which has attracted the world of science is the earthquake cloud theory given by Varahmihira in his Brhat Samhita. The thirty second chapter of this samhita is devoted to signs of earthquakes. He has tried to relate earthquakes to the influence of planets, undersea activities, underground water, unusual cloud formation and abnormal behaviour of animals.

3.   Nagarjuna: Nagarjuna was a tenth century scientist. The main aim of his experiments was to transform base elements into gold, like the alchemists in the western world. Even though he was not successful in his goal, he succeeded in making an element with gold-like shine. Till date, this technology is used in making imitation jewelry. In his treatise, Rasaratnakara, he has discussed methods for the extraction of metals like gold, silver, tin and copper.

Complex Hydraulic Engineering: Since the time of the Indus Valley civilisation over 5,000 years ago, and until the onset of the European colonial era in the recent past, India had created and sustained a vast and highly advanced network of canals, along with intricate irrigation, water management and sewage systems. These sewage systems were so advanced that they were designed to automatically self-clear systems blockages, as well as account for smell and odour. The world's first flush toilets were also in use in India over 3,000 years ago, and were a feature of most homes in the Indus Valley Civilisation - the largest ancient civilisation in the world.

According to American author of historical revisionism, David Hatcher Childress, ancient India's plumbing-sewage systems were so sophisticated that they are still superior to those of many developing countries today. Large public baths were also in existence in the Indus Valley Civilisation, thousands of years before the creation of similar Roman baths.

Medical Science in Ancient India (Ayurveda & Yoga)

The word Ayurveda literally means the science of good health and longevity of life. This ancient Indian system of medicine not only helps in treatment of diseases but also in finding the causes and symptoms of diseases. It defines health as an equilibrium in three doshas, and diseases as disturbance in these three doshas. While treating a disease with the help of herbal medicines, it aims at removing the cause of disease by striking at the roots. It is the oldest medical system of our planet. A treatise on Ayurveda, Atreya Samhita, is the oldest medical book of the world. Charak is called the father of ayurvedic medicine and Susruta the father of surgery. Susruta, Charak, Madhava, Vagbhatta and Jeevak were noted ayurvedic practitioners.

Susruta: Susruta was a pioneer in the field of surgery. In Susruta Samhita, over 1100 diseases are mentioned including fevers of twenty-six kinds, jaundice of eight kinds and urinary complaints of twenty kinds. Over 760 plants are described. Susruta’s greatest contribution was in the fields of Rhinoplasty (plastic surgery) and Ophthalmic surgery (removal of cataracts). In those days, cutting of nose and/or ears was a common punishment. Restoration of these or limbs lost in wars was a great blessing. In Susruta Samhita, there is a very accurate step-by-step description of these operations. Susruta Samhita also gives a description of 101 instruments used in surgery. Some serious operations performed included taking foetus out of the womb, repairing the damaged rectum, removing stone from the bladder, etc.

Charak: Charak is considered the father of ancient Indian science of medicine. He was the Raj Vaidya (royal doctor) in the court of Kanishka. His Charak Samhita is a remarkable book on medicine. He was the first to talk about digestion, metabolism and immunity as important for health and so medical science. In Charak Samhita, more stress has been laid on removing the cause of disease rather than simply treating the illness. Charak also knew the fundamentals of Genetics.

Yoga & Patanjali: The science of Yoga was developed in ancient India as an allied science of Ayurveda for healing without medicine at the physical and mental level. The term Yoga has been derived from the Sanskrit work Yoktra. Its literal meaning is “yoking the mind to the inner self after detaching it from the outer subjects of senses”. Like all other sciences, it has its roots in the Vedas. It defines chitta i.e. dissolving thoughts, emotions and desires of a person’s consciousness and achieving a state of equilibrium. It sets in to motion the force that purifies and uplifts the consciousness to divine realization. Yoga is physical as well as mental. Physical yoga is called Hathyoga. Generally, it aims at removing a disease and restoring healthy condition to the body. Rajayoga is mental yoga. Its goal is self realization and liberation from bondage by achieving physical mental, emotional and spritiual balance.

Yoga was passed on by word of mouth from one sage to another. The credit of systematically presenting this great science goes to Patanjali. In the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, Aum is spoken of as the symbol of God. He refers to Aum as a cosmic sound, continuously flowing through the ether, fully known only to the illuminated. Besides Yoga Sutras, Patanjali also wrote a work on medicine and worked on Panini’s grammar known as Mahabhasaya.

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Science in Modern Era in India

With the emergence of a new politically independent nation, India continued to march ahead pursuing a programme of using modern science and technology for national development. We spend about 1.5% of its GNP on science and technology establishing unique capabilities.

The first Prime Minister J.L Nehru made conscious efforts to enhance and modernise the scientific temperament by setting up of a chain of national laboratories, institutes of higher technical education, universities and actively supported the atomic energy programme for peaceful purposes.

In 1948, the Atomic Energy Act was passed and the Department of Atomic Energy was directly under his charge was created. A scientific man power committee and five institutes of technology came up at Kharagpur, Bombay, Madras, Kanpur and Delhi besides a number of regional engineering colleges. In 1948, Nehru directed the CSIR to prepare National Register of Scientific and Technical personnel.

Defense organization was set up in 1948, on advice prof. P.M.S Blackett for the scientific evolution of weapons and equipment, operational research and special studies. The enthusiastic efforts of Mr. Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar led to the expansion of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research into a chain of national laboratories spanning a wide spectrum of science, technology, engineering and biomedical sciences.

The vision of Homi. J. Bhabha also led to advanced research in nuclear energy and other fundamental areas through the creation of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research which is now known as the Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC). Later on Indira Gandhi gave the highest priority to self-reliance in science and technology and self-sufficiency in food. In 1971, recongnising the importance of self-reliant electronic capabilities in the country, she set up the Electronic Commission.

To ensure that the developmental activities took place in harmony with the environment, Mrs. Gandhi created a new department of environment at the center in 1980. It was her initiative that the first Indian scientific expedition to Antartica. She was also deeply aware of the great importance of energy for development and in particular, the pressing needs in rural areas.

Accordingly, she set up a Commission on Additional Sources of Energy in March 1981 and thereafter a department of Non-conventional Energy source. Considering the further need for advancement in science and technology Mr. Rajiv Gandhi started Technology Mission as an offshoot of the seventh plan. This mission launched in the fields of literacy, immunization, oilseeds, drinking water, dairy products and telecommunication.

In the light of the new industrial and economic policies adopted by the government, the approach has been, on technology development besides enhancing the flow of technology from abroad, the department of electronic, space, nuclear energy etc. have initiated a series of technology Missions to meet the need of countries.

As a result of all these efforts now India is one of the leading country of the world in advancement of science and technology. And its example can be seen in the success of Chandarayana-I mission and launching of world class warfare Submarine Arihant which is an indigenous product. Launching of Oceansat-2 and Risat are another milestone of Indian science and technology.

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Prominent Indian Scientists

Chandrasekhara Venkata (C.V.) Raman was a prolific researcher, and writer of scientific treatises on the molecular scattering of light and other subjects of quantum mechanics. In 1930 Raman was awarded the Nobel prize in physics for his 1928 discovery of the Raman Effect, which demonstrates that the energy of a photon can undergo partial transformation within matter. In 1934-36, with his colleague Nagendra Nath, Raman propounded the Raman-Nath Theory on the diffraction of light by ultrasonic waves. He was a director of the Indian Institute of Science and founded the Indian Academy of Sciences in 1934 and the Raman Research Institute in 1948.

Sir Jagadish Chandra (J.C.) Bose, a Cambridge-educated Bengali physicist who discovered the application of electromagnetic waves to wireless telegraphy in 1895 and then went on to a second notable career in biophysical research. Meghnad Saha, also from Bengal, was trained in India, Britain, and Germany and became an internationally recognized nuclear physicist whose mathematical equations and ionization theory gave new insight into the functions of stellar spectra. In the late 1930s, Saha began promoting the importance of science to national economic modernization, a concept fully embraced by Nehru and several generations of government planners. The Bose-Einstein Statistics, used in quantum physics, and Boson particles are named after another leading scientist, mathematician Satyendranath (S.N.) Bose. S.N. Bose was trained in India, and his research discoveries gave him international fame and an opportunity for advanced studies in France and Germany. In 1924 he sent the results of his research on radiation as a form of gas to Albert Einstein. Einstein extended Bose's statistical methods to ordinary atoms, which led him to predict a new state of matter--called the Bose-Einstein Condensation--that was scientifically proved in United States laboratory experiments in 1995.

Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887-1927): Mathematician known for his brilliant contributions to contributions to mathematical analysis, number theory, infinite series and continued fractions. Although he was almost completely unaware of modern developments in mathematics, his mastery of continued fractions was unequaled by any living mathematician. He worked out the Riemann series, the elliptic integrals, hypergeometric series, the functional equations of the zeta function, and his own theory of divergent series.

Homi Jehangir Bhabha, also known as father of India Nuclear Programme was an eminent physicist internationally recognized for his contributions to the fields of positron theory, cosmic rays, and muon physics at the University of Cambridge in Britain. In 1945, with financial assistance from the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust, Bhabha established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in Bombay. was an Indian nuclear physicist, founding director, and professor of physics at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. This thorium focused strategy was in marked contrast to all other countries in the world. The approach proposed by Bhabha to achieve this strategic objective became India's three stage nuclear power programme.

Har Gobind Khorana (1922-2011): He worked in field of biochemistry and shared the 1968 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Marshall W. Nirenberg and Robert W. Holley for research that helped to show how the order of nucleotides in nucleic acids, which carry the genetic code of the cell, control the cell’s synthesis of proteins. Khorana and his team had established that the mother of all codes, the biological language common to all living organisms, is spelled out in three-letter words: each set of three nucleotides codes for a specific amino acid. Khorana was the first scientist to chemically synthesize oligonucleotides.

Salim Ali: referred to as the "birdman of India", Salim Ali was among the first Indians to conduct systematic bird surveys across India and his bird books helped develop ornithology. He became the key figure behind the Bombay Natural History Society after 1947 and used his personal influence to garner government support for the organisation, create the Bharatpur bird sanctuary (Keoladeo National Park) and prevent the destruction of what is now the Silent Valley National Park. He was awarded India's second highest civilian honour, the Padma Vibhushan in 1976.

Meghnad Saha: Astrophysicist who developed the Saha equation, which explains chemical and physical conditions in stars. He produced the famous equation which he called 'equation of the reaction - isobar for ionization' which later became known as Saha's "Thermo-Ionization Equation". Saha was the leading spirit in organizing the scientific societies like the 'National Academy of Science' (1930), 'Indian Institute of Science' (1935) and the 'Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science' (1944). The lasting memorial to him is the 'Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics' founded in 1943 in Calcutta. He was the chief architect of river planning in India. He prepared the original plan for Damodar Valley Project.

Dr.Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar (1895-1955): Dr. Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar is known as 'The Father of Research Laboratories'. He is remembered for having established various chemical laboratories in the country. As Nehru was much in favour of scientific development after Independence, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research was set up under the chairmanship of Dr. Bhatnagar. Later, he was awarded 'Padma Bhushan'. He became the first director-general of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in 1940. After his death, CSIR established a Bhatnagar Memorial award for eminent scientists in his honour.

Vikram.A.Sarabhai (1919-1971): Vikram.A.Sarabhai, was the main personality behind the launching of India's first satellite, Aryabhata in 1975. He was also responsible for the Equatorial Rocket Building Station at Thumba. Sarabhai set up the Ahmedabad Textile Industries Research Association, a laboratory for research in Physics and the Indian Institute of Management. Sarabhai was the second chairman of India's Atomic Energy Commission and the Indian Space Research Organisation. Sarabhai's study of cosmic rays under the eminent scientist Dr. C.V. Raman, revealed that cosmic rays are a stream of energy particles reaching the earth from the outer space, being influenced on their way by the sun, the atmosphere and magnetism. This study helps in observing terrestrial magnetism and the atmosphere, the nature of the sun and outer space. He was conferred 'Padma Shri' in 1966 and was posthumously awarded 'Padma Vibushan' in 1972. He was also awarded 'Dr. Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize' in 1962. This great scientist could be credited with launching India into space age.

VenkatramanRamakrishnan (born 1952) is an Indian-born American and British structural biologist, who shared the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Thomas A. Steitz and Ada E. Yonath, "for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome" Ribosomes are tiny particles made up of RNA and proteins that specialize in protein synthesis and are found free or bound to the endoplasmic reticulum within cells

Satish Dhawan (1912-2002) was an aerospace engineer and father of fluid dynamics research in India. He was the head of the Indian space programme, he devoted substantial efforts towards boundary layer research. His most important contributions are presented in the seminal book Boundary Layer Theory by Hermann Schlichting. He set up the country's first supersonic wind tunnel at IISc. He also pioneered research on relaminarization of separated boundary layer flows, three-dimensional boundary layers and trisonic flows. He carried out pioneering experiments in rural education, remote sensing and satellite communications. His efforts led to operational systems like INSAT, a telecommunications satellite; IRS, the Indian Remote Sensing satellite; and the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), that placed India in the league of space faring nations.

Dr. A.P.J. Kalam: He is popularly known as the Missile Man of India for his work on the development of ballistic missile and launch vehicle technology. He played a pivotal organizational, technical and political role in India's Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998, the first since the original nuclear test by India in 1974. he was the project director of India's first indigenous Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-III) which successfully deployed the Rohini satellite in near earth's orbit in July 1980. He was the chief executive of Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (I.G.M.D.P) . Kalam played a major part in developing many missiles under the mission including Agni, an intermediate range ballistic missile and Prithvi. In his book India 2020, Kalam strongly advocates an action plan to develop India into a knowledge superpower and a developed nation by the year 2020. He regards his work on India's nuclear weapons program as a way to assert India's place as a future superpower.

Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1910-1995): Astrophysicist won the Nobel Prize in 1983 for his research on the evolutionary stages of massive stars.

Raj Reddy: A.M. Turing Award-winning computer scientist, best known for his work related to large scale artificial intelligence systems.

Birbal Sahni: Paleobotanist known for his research on the fossils of the Indian subcontinent. He founded what is today the Birbal Sahni Botanical Institute in Lucknow, India.

Satyendra Nath Bose: Mathematician and physicist; best known for his collaboration with Albert Einstein in formulating a theory related to the gaslike qualities of electromagnetic radiation.

S.S. Abhyankar( 1930) Mathematician; famous for his outstanding contributions to algebraic geometry.

CNR Rao: Bharat Ratna (1913), Chintamani Nagesa Ramachandra Rao has worked mainly in solid state and structural chemistry. He has authored around 1,500 research papers and 45 scientific books. His work on transition metal oxides has led to basic understanding of novel phenomena and the relationship between materials properties and the structural chemistry of these materials. Rao was one of the earliest to synthesize two-dimensional oxide materials such as La2CuO4. His work has led to a systematic study of compositionally controlled metal-insulator transitions. Such studies have had a profound impact in application fields such as colossal magneto resistance and high temperature superconductivity. Oxide semiconductors have unusual promise. He has made immense contributions to nano-materials over the last two decades, besides his work on hybrid materials.

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Science since independence

Since Independence, India has endeavoured to bring economic and social change through science and technology. The effort has been both on upgrading the traditional skills to make them relevant and competitive and developing advanced capabilities in frontier areas of science and technology. The visionaries who led the growth of science and technology (S and T) in India were convinced that S and T could play an important role in transforming India in to a modern, industrialized society. Experience and results show that this confidence was well placed. Science, technology, and innovation are even more relevant today. Scientific knowledge and expertise, innovation, high technology, industrial infrastructure and skilled workforce are the currencies of this new era. Science and Technology are important drivers of economic growth and development in the contemporary world. The present juncture is critical for Indian science and major positive steps in this area will help the country to achieve sustained and rapid growth in the future.

The Science and Technology Division of the Planning Commission is the nodal division for all matters relating to Science and Technology Plan formulation (both Five Year Plans and Annual Plans) and appraisal of the S and T programmes of six major S and T agencies/Departments, viz.

• Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)- R and D Sector
• Department of Space (DOS)
• Department of Science and Technology (DST)
• Department of Biotechnology (DBT)
• Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) including the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
• Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES)

The Division has been maintaining a close liaison with these S and T agencies/departments for smooth information flow and provides them important suggestions/inputs in the formulation of various S and T plans and programmes at various stages of plan formulation, implementation and half yearly reviews. The Division has also been providing important inputs in the formulation of S and T Policy.

In order to promote Science and Technology in the States/UTs, create scientific awareness among the masses through popularization of S and T and technology dissemination for improving the quality of life of the people, the Division undertakes detailed discussions with the representatives of the States/UTs and provides important inputs/suggestions for the formulation of their Five Year Plans and Annual Plans in respect of the Science and Technology Sector.

The Indian research system and structure of governance can be characterized as a ‘top-down model’, but it is an open model with a democratically centralized system. Even though India is now counted among the emerging economies of the world, its science and technology (S&T) system is comparable to the S&T systems of the developed countries to a large extent. S&T developments in space technology with capabilities to launch commercial satellites and un-manned missions to the moon, nuclear technology, pharma research capabilities in drug discovery and commercialization, ICT software, biotechnology in health and agriculture and the emerging capabilities in automotive research and telecommunications have contributed to the country’s recognition as an important ‘knowledge power’ in the global economy. While the public research systems in space, industrial research in pharma and chemical, among others, have emerged as important actors in the emerging innovation system, the R&D in business enterprise sector increased in the last few years.

Encouraged by the relatively reasonable GDP growth rates, the Prime Minister reiterated the government's commitment to increase India’s R&D budget to 2% of GDP during the XIIth Plan Period 2012-2017.

India was among the top nations of the world for the SCI based scientific publications for the decade 1996-2006. At the 9th position, India is preceded by Australia, Canada, France, China, Germany, Japan, UK and USA

Whilst the XIth Plan higher education budget witnessed a fourfold increase compared to the Xth Plan, the XIIth Plan (2012-2017) is expected to witness a similar increase as the national policy of Right to Education has come into force.

The formulation of research policies, investment in R&D and implementation are the main activities, which are basically enunciated and coordinated by three actors, namely, the Planning Commission, the Ministry of Science and Technology and various science agencies under it, and Scientific Advisory Bodies to the Cabinet and Prime Minister.

The Science and Technology Policy Statement of the government in 2003 and the XIIth Plan (2012-2017) Steering Committee by the Planning Commission, particularly the report of the Steering Committee on Science and Technology constitute the overarching policy intent of the country. In essence, these over arching statements explicitly spell out the public support to the science and technology (S&T) system including research and development (R&D) institutions and higher educational institutions (HEIs) involved in the generation, absorption, application of S&T knowledge for the benefit of people and society at large, aid the development of industry and enhance the quality of life. The recent thrust of S&T policy focus is spelled out by the Prime Minister in January 2012 while speaking at the 99th Indian Science Congress meeting. The five broad objectives laid down by the Prime Minister are:

i)    Ensure major increase in investment in R&D, including by industry and strategic sectors;

ii)   Ensure creation of a new innovation ecosystem;

iii)  Achieve greater alignment of the S&T sector with the inclusive development needs of the nation;

iv) Expand basic science infrastructure; and

v)   Encourage greater research collaboration among universities and national laboratories through National Knowledge Network. Together with this, the objective to enlarge India's international collaboration was stressed.

Ministry of Science and Technology

The Government has taken a number of steps to increase the pace of progress in the field of scientific research and development in India, these measures include successive increase in plan allocations for Scientific Departments, setting up of new institutions for science education and research, creation of centres of excellence and facilities in emerging and frontline areas in academic and national institutes, induction of new and attractive fellowships, strengthening infrastructure for Research and Development (R&D), encouraging public-private R&D partnerships etc. Launching of programmes like

• Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired Research (INSPIRE), Nano Mission,
• Mega Facilities,
• Open Source Drug Discovery,
• Network Projects,
• National Biotechnology Development Strategy etc.

The Government has established a Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) in the country as an autonomous body through an Act of Parliament. The creation of SERB, apart from significantly enhancing the level of basic research funding, shall also impart the necessary autonomy, flexibility and speed in shaping the research programmes and delivery of funds to researchers.

For experimenting and opening new areas of research and entering into novel territories, programmes such as Encouraging and Motivating Pursuit of World Class Exploratory Research (EMPOWER), Research Initiative to Scale New Knowledge (RISK) and CSIR.WWW have been launched. The outlay proposed for the XII Plan for S&T is Rs.1, 70,000 crores. Apart from expanding the scope of investigator centric Extra Mural Research support programmes in terms of quantity and quality, multifaceted programmes like Start-up Research grant for Indian Diaspora undertaking faculty assignments in Indian academia, Overseas Doctoral Scholarships and Post-doctoral Fellowships, Building Educators for Science Teaching, PAN India Mission, Public Private Partnerships for R&D, Disha Programme for Women in Science, Platforms for Technology Solution, Challenge Award for Global Positioning etc. are proposed for the XII Five Year Plan to take R&D to higher levels.

Role of Department of Science and Technology

The Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India was established on the 3rd of May 1971 following the success of Green revolution that signified innovative deployment of scientific methodologies. Over the last forty three years, DST developed several streams that later established themselves as departments or even ministries with focused goals. Some of these include the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR), Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF), Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE), Department of Electronics (DoE) and Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES). The DST serves as a nodal agency connecting the science sector to the Government verticals. The roles played by DST are varied and these evolved with time. DST is accordingly (a) Develops S&T policies, (b) Strengthens human resources and institutional capacities, (c) Enables development & deployment of technologies, (d) Creates opportunities for societal interventions through S & T & (e) Establishes and engages in mechanisms of cooperation, partnerships & alliances. These approaches that reflect its mission ensure a holistic systemic influence, immediate, medium and long term relevance/ gains. It enables cross cutting impacts across sectors to sustain growth/ development and synergies to optimize on time, human, institutional and financial resources.

The DST has consistently enabled transformational changes through appropriate responses and often non-participative roles. DST accordingly played the role of an extra mural research funding agency wherein competitive grants for research was provided to investigators based on technical merit. This system was in vogue for nearly three decades. DST also took cognizance of several changes in approaches around the world, over the years and evolved its own systems adapted to India’s needs. This resulted in some directional changes that evolved into proactive functions and participative actions. These are evident in DST’s robust facets including proactive identification of gap areas and development of new programmes and schemes, evidence based approaches to define gaps / needs balancing competitive and development models, championing for larger resource allocations for science, expansion of stakeholder variety and base, interactions centered on value of stakeholder engagement, internal connectivity of various programmes, effective planning and coordination to optimize use and delivery of resources, gain a deeper understanding of local needs and establish a dynamic balance among three basic priorities of an integrated vision to synthesize equity, expansion and excellence in the science sector.

DST ensures a synthesis of the outcome of policies, plans, programmes and projects through appropriate forward and backward linkages. International S&T cooperation with friendly countries had become a national priority and DST was assigned the task. Thus, DST establishes strategically important systems / mechanisms to stimulate and foster excellence and leadership in scientific research and development. These are aligned with India’s developmental aspirations and will further help consolidate the niche it has established in several frontiers at the national, regional and global levels.

Highlights of Annual Report of Department Of Science and Technology (2017-18)[1]

The Department of Science and Technology (DST) functions as the nodal agency to connect science and technology sector to Government verticals. DST provides the largest extramural research and development support in the country to strengthen national S&T capacity and capability through a competitive mode to scientists cutting across institutions and disciplines. This strategically important function mutually reinforces outcomes of our country’s educational, scientific and industrial R&D initiatives and helps transform the S&T landscape of the country.

A major exercise this year (2017-2018) has been to review all ongoing chemes/programs and group them into 3 broad heads as follows:

Science and Technology Institutional and Human Capacity Building

Research and Development

Innovation, Technology Development and Deployment

Such reorganisation of schemes into 3 budget heads would facilitate greater flexibility to apportion funds depending on the priority of the programme within a particular broad scheme.

In addition to this new classification, some other initiatives and  major achievements of the department are as follows:

Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired Research (INSPIRE) scheme for attracting talented students to pursue study of science and careers in S&T provided opportunity to 50000 class XI students to participate in science camps; offered 10000 fellowships to pursue UG/PG courses in science; 1000 scholarships for pursuing doctoral research; and 200 faculty awards as assured career opportunity for post doctoral researchers.

INSPIRE Award MANAK (Million Minds Augmenting National Aspiration and Knowledge) was made operational during the year. Approximately 2.50 lakh nominations received from various schools across the country, out of which about 30,000 have been shortlisted for INSPIRE Award.

Knowledge Involvement in Research Advancement through Nurturing (KIRAN) Programme for Women Scientists embraces women-exclusive schemes of DST with the mandate to bring gender parity in S&T through gender mainstreaming. Different programs and components of KIRAN deal with various crucial issues (break in career primarily due to family responsibilities, self-employment, part time career, relocation, etc.) faced by women scientists in their career path.  

Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) approved over 1500 extramural R&D projects and 1700 fellowships of various kinds to enable scientists to carry out research activities in their chosen areas of science and engineering. The Board in the reporting period has taken significant decisions and implemented many new initiatives for the cause of furthering extramural R&D in S&T, some of these are:

a. Uchhatar Avishkar Yojana (UAY): The UAY has been launched by the MHRD with a view to promote innovation of a higher order that directly impacts the need of the industries, thereby improving the competitive edge of Indian manufacturing capabilities. While MHRD funds 50% of the project cost, industry and other participating Ministries share the balance project cost (25% each). The projects funded under this scheme will be named as “UAY SERB” projects. Over 50 proposals are under reviewing process after clearance from MHRD

b. Visiting Advance Joint Research (VAJRA): Another new program named Visiting Advanced Joint Research (VAJRA) Faculty announced by the Honourable Prime Minister was launched to bring a strong international connect to the Research and Development (R&D) ecosystem of India. The scheme offers adjunct / visiting faculty positions to overseas scientist / faculty / R&D professionals including Non-resident Indians (NRI) & Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) to undertake quality collaborative research in public-funded academic and research institutions of India. A total of 229 eligible applications from 39 countries were received. SERB, through its Peer Review mechanism involving two levels of Committees, a Selection Committee and an Apex Committee, has selected 43 foreign faculties including NRIs from various institutions spread across 13 countries. Some of the foreign faculties are going to join the Indian Institutions in the current year itself.

c. MATRICS (Mathematical Research Impact-Centric Support): in Mathematical Sciences. The main attribute of this scheme would be the submission of a simple one-page mathematical proposal along with curriculum vitae. The funding provided would cater to the specific needs of Mathematical Sciences research. About 1056 projects were received under this scheme of which 188 projects were recommended for support.

d. Abdul Kalam Technology Innovation National Fellowship The Board has approved the scheme- Abdul Kalam Technology Innovation National Fellowship. The aim of the scheme is to incorporate performance based evaluation w.r.t the effectiveness of the scheme, at the inception stage itself. The fellowship amount is Rs. 25,000/- per month, research grant of Rs. 15 lakhs per annum, overhead of Rs.01 lakh for 5 years for 10 fellowships per year at a total cost of Rs.9.5 crore. The scheme was formally launched and 3 scientists were awarded the fellowship during the year.

e. J C Bose, SERB Distinguished & Year of Science Chair Professorship: J C Bose Fellowship is instituted to recognize active scientists for their outstanding performance. Whereas the SERB Distinguished Fellowship is to cater to the eminent superannuated scientists who do not hold any administrative roles and functions but are active and performing, the YoS Chair Professorships are to acknowledge the outstanding contribution of scientists and academicians to the cause of Indian science, in the areas of STEM. These Professors are regarded as bench mark for stature, value and eminence in the international area. The board decided to work out a mechanism to regulate the number of JC Bose Fellows at a given point in time and develop a dynamic criterion to measure the performance of the fellows so that parameters so developed can be taken as performance index for taking decision while seeking extension by the fellows. The other two fellowships were revised upward, considering the need of the times.

f. Promoting International Linkages in existing schemes: Having received several requests from the scientific community to open up the scheme for various categories of researchers such as Non-Resident Indians (NRI), Person of Indian Origin (PIO), Overseas Citizen of India (OCI), the board has opened up SERB schemes/programs such as EMR, ECRA, HRHR, IRRD, IRHPA etc. to scientists regardless of nationality to apply and compete for grants. However, this will not be applicable to fellowship such as JC Bose, Ramanujan, N PDF etc.

g. Utilization of Social Media: The organization has recently opened a Twitter (@serbonline), LinkedIn and Facebook accounts for wider dissemination of new schemes as well as to expand the scope of utilization of outcome of the R&D projects by public at large.

Some of the other schemes that have already been approved by the board and are being implemented and launched soon are as follows:

a. SERB Distinguished Investigator Award (SERB-DIA) is a new scheme which has been approved for early identification and empowerment of exceptional scientists. It aims to recognize and reward the young scientists who have performed extraordinarily well in the SERB supported projects.

b. TARE (Teacher Associates for Research Excellence) Mobility Scheme has been formulated and approved which aims to activate the latent and unused R&D capacity in our colleges and state universities that lack S&T infrastructure and culture.

c. Accelerate Vigyan: The objective of this scheme is to have a systems approach, that can push high-end scientific research and prepare scientific manpower capable enough to venture into research careers. This programme has been conceived by SERB on the recommendation of Group of Secretaries (SGO-8) to give a boost to science. The programme aims to (1) Consolidate the existing training related programs and activities in the country to provide single platform for access for the ease of students as well as other stakeholders and (2) organise and support of the High-End Workshops and Research Internships by SERB during next five years for dedicated capacity building in selected areas / disciplines.

d. Development of Management Information System and Science and Engineering Indicators: A Management Information Systems and Science and Engineering Indicators system is being developed with the aim to quantitatively measure the performance of various Schemes/Programmes for providing clear performance parameters, outputs, detailed programme of work, qualitative improvement in output along with commensurate input requirement; output target forming the basis of budgetary support.

The board approved the following two mega proposals as recommended by the Empowered Committee, for implementation:

a. Interdisciplinary Centre for Cyber Security and Cyber Defence of Critical Infrastructures has been funded at IIT Kanpur with a total cost of around Rs.15 crores to create India’s first such research centre. The objective of the project is to become an internationally renowned and nationally the most important centre for research, education, public research and national service for securing and defending our national critical infrastructure from cybre attacks and electronic warfare, and the centre to create next generation work force in cyber security / defence.

b. Investigation of orientation effects and shell-selectivity in molecular fragmentation under slow highly charged ion impact by Prof. Bapat, IISER Pune. One of the major objective of the project is to develop a facility for studying collisions between slow, highly charged ions and molecules in a kinematic-ally complete manner.

Initiative to Promote Habitat Energy Efficiency (I-PHEE) is one of the new national programme to improve energy performance of buildings and cities. The initiative is geared to support enhancement of knowledge and practice to save energy in design, construction and operation of human habitats. The initiative also envisages support to India specific outcome based research in the areas of energy efficient building envelop technologies, low energy cooling systems, daylighting and electric lighting, building automation and controls for energy savings and research which can provide scientific weights to policy formulation and help devise procedures, codes and standards. During the year, 30 projects have been initiated.

Solar Energy Research Institute for India and the United States (SERIIUS): The Solar Energy Research Institute for India and the United States (SERIIUS) is co-led by the Indian Institute of Science (IISc)-Bangalore and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). SERIIUS carries out fundamental and applied research, analysis and assessment, outreach and workforce development through specific bi-national projects in three Research Thrusts of Sustainable Photovoltaics (PV), Multiscale Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) and Solar Energy Integration (SEI). The scientific highlights of current year is as follows:

a. Photovoltaic activities continue to focus on developing ink-based components for roll-to-roll processing. There was focus on charge-selective contacts and transparent conductors. The team continues to look both at reliability and to develop new, more-aging-resistant materials based on the detailed examination of reliability data.

b. Concentrated solar power made considerable progress toward developing an integrated Brayton-cycle system. Further progress has been made on the oil separator for the test loop and the control circuit. A second test system has been made by HPCL for testing high-temperature molten salts synergistic with the test loop at IISc., Bangalore. In the organic Rankine cycle, a new expander design has been fabricated and is being tested at the University of Florida.

c. Solar Energy Integration analysis has begun to evaluate the manufacturing costs for both a silicon manufacturing plant and a module assembly line in India given current costs and technology.

Eight Global Technology Watch Groups (GTWGs) have been set up in the areas of Renewable Energy; Clean Coal Technology; Agriculture; Water; Sustainable Habitat; Green India; Enhanced Energy Efficiency; and Manufacturing.

Improved Natural Draft Fixed Chimney Bull’s Trench Kiln, a Novel Energy Efficient Design with Zig-Zag Firing Technology was demonstrated by Punjab State Council for Science & Technology through DST supported project.

Indo-UK Joint Virtual Clean Energy Centres were launched at Second International Mission Innovation Smart Grids Workshop in November, 2017. The two Indian consortia led by IIT Kharagpur and IIT Bombay will bring together experts from national laboratories, universities and industry in both India and the UK to leverage their expertise and resources to unlock the huge potential of clean energy technologies.

Twenty five autonomous institutions nurtured by the Department occupy a very important place in S&T eco-system of the country. One of them, viz. Bose Institute in Kolkata, celebrated its centenary year during 2017. These institutions generated extremely valuable scientific and technological input during the year.

4 new Centres of Excellence were launched  as a part of National Mission for Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change deliverables. These were positioned at:

i) IIT Delhi;

ii) BHU, Varanasi;

iii) IIT Kharagpur; and

iv) National Institute of Malaria Research (NIMR), Delhi.

Promotion of Innovation, Entrepreneurship and Start-Ups:  For this, 12 new Technology Business Incubators (TBI); 10 Accelerators; 3 Centres of Excellence and 10 PRAYAS Centres are being established.

Some Innovative products developed by start ups:

i) AirOK Smart Purifier by an incubatee at IIT Madras Incubation Cell that can be used in indoor environments

ii) Planys Technologies Pvt Ltd incubated by by IIT Madras Incubation Cell provides underwater robotic inspection and survey solutions using indigenously manufactured underwater robots

Initiatives for Rural/Agrarian Communities:

i) Cost Effective Space & Water Heating Device: It has been devised to address challenge of water and room space heating in high altitude mountain region. It will be using solar energy and local resources.

ii) Sustainable livelihood model for communities in Arid Region of Western India through suitable technology interventions has been developed

iii) A mini cold storage with a capacity of 5MT was designed for small farmers using sub-cooling technique incorporating Phase Change Material (PCM) latent storage system and heat pipes for a Vapor Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS). This facility is also being used under National Skill Development Corporation Curriculum for training Cold Storage Technician.

iv) Technological Advancement for Rural Areas (TARA) TARA scheme aims to develop & deliver innovative S&T packages through adaptive research, primarily for rural and remote areas applications. In this endeavour, Core Support Groups (CSGs) are identifying location-specific problems, converting them to S&T based research challenges and developing & demonstrating S&T packages which are subsequently transferred to people. During the year, 22 ongoing CSGs or S&T led field action groups, based in 14 States, were supported. To expand the outreach of the scheme, 4 new groups were identified to work in Rajasthan Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh.

Initiatives taken during 3rd India International Science Festival (IISF)-2017 IISF-2017, a Mega Science, Technology and Industry Expo, was conducted successfully at Anna University Grounds, Chennai during 13-16, October 2017. IISF 2017 was organised by Ministry of Science and Technology and Ministry of Earth Sciences in association with Vijnana Bharati, NCSTC and Vigyan Prasar were the major participants. 25 State Councils of Science and Technology also took part besides 300 Labs and Institutions from across the country and displayed their capabilities and achievements in the S&T domain. About 25 Central Ministries were also present in the Expo.  Some notable initiatives were:

a) Science and Heritage Research Initiative (SHRI) launched. It envisages to engage experts from diverse fields for data capture and analysis to form new collaborations and provide viable technology to address cultural heritage related issues.

b) Science and Technology Ministers Conclave for neighbouring countries was organized as a part of the event. 

c) India Science and Research Fellowship (ISRF) 2017-18 was launched.