The richness and variety of folk Theatre in India speaks for the basic artistic capacity of the people. Folk legends and myth combine with song and dance to create a vibrant theatre in every region of India. The origin of folk theatre, like its classical counterpart, goes back to the Vedic hymns, many of them in the forms of dialogues

Initially all forms of folk drama were religiously oriented, as time went by the drama become oriented to the social conditions. The folk theatre forms have become a part of our cultural tradition, kept alive over the centuries, surving the on slanght of changes due to social and political upheaval.

It is spontaneous, maybe sometimes crude, simple and yet profound, reflecting the habits, tradition and vitality of a dynamic cultural heritage.

Discussed here are some of the prominent folk drama forms prevalent in India.

Mudiyettu-A rityalistic dance drama of an ancient descent in Kerala, the Mudujettu is performed annually at Kali Temples. It signifies the triumph of good over evil, as kali vanquishes the demon Darika.

Prevalent in the western part of India, Bhavai originated in Rajasthan and northern parts of Gujarat. Initially the Bhavai performances were part of religious rituals to propitiate the Mother Goddess during religious festivals. Later, however, they came to be performed throughout the year, though even now the first performance of the year is presented on the first day of Navaratra, in a Shiva temple. Bhavai is a series of playlets (vesha) strong together. A playlet may be mythological or social in theme. Some of these veshas have Muslims as principal characters showing the influence of the Muslim rulers in Deccan and Delhi. The Bhavais travel from village to village with their show. The music uses classical ragas but in a style of its own. The dance too is not classical though the influence of Kathak besides the folk dances of Raas and Garba is seen. Bhavai has social relevance for it incorporates topical issues and holds up the mirror to society and thus functions as a creator of public opinion.

Haryana has a rich tradition of folk theatre called sang. Musicians sit in the middle of an open air stage around which the audience sit. The actors-cum-singers-cum-dancers move all around the stage. The plot is based on a popular legend, good singing and dancing. Comic scenes are interwoven in the performance.

A well known peforming art from Kahsmir, Jashin is a combination of farces called Pathers  and performed by folk artists called Bhands. Every Pather ends with a comic event. Sanskrit drama (cf. Pather from patra = dramatics personate) has influenced the form. Jashin is performed is honour of some god. Performances take place in open air and actors mingle with the people. A clown is a must in a Pather. Jashin is a powerful medium of satire on social evils.

A fold drama of Himachal Pradehs, Karyala, deals with serious questions of life and death briefly and with simplicity of expression and diction, all enveloped in humour.

Rajasthan has developed varieties of dance dramas known as Khyals. The tradition is more than 400 years old. The Khyals have been a powerful medium of entertainment as well as cultural and social education. The Khyals have singing and distinctive techniques of instrumental music.

Maharashtra has a flourishing theatrical tradition. Initially Tamasha started as a singing dancing party. It was in the later Peshwa period that Tamasha took on a definite shape and achieved its present format. Women began appearing on the stage. The theatre is simple – devoid of special props or dazzling costumes and make-up. Only the jester puts on a funny dress. It has its own distinct style of dancing and singing. The Lavani dance is interwoven in the presentation. The Tamasha reflects social and sometimes even political aspirations of the people. It has deeply influenced modern theatre and film.

A unique form of rural entertainment and communication in Tamil Nadu, Therukkothu combines music, dance and drama. Literally it is “street theatre” performed in the open. Some influence of classical Sanskrit drama is apparent. There is a Kat-tlyakaran – parallel to the Sutradhar – who, however, has a more elaborate role, taking on different parts besides those of jester and  commentator. The tradition is oral, and the players have to be specially talented as they have often to compose poems imprompty and sing in tune and tola. Female parts are played by the males. The stories are taken from the epics and other classical legends. At some places the Kooth is performed for several days. There is an element of ritual involved, and the audience often involve themselves totally in the performance. In the course of the performance, day-to-day problems, too, are discussed in a clinical and dialectial way. While the acting is stylized the effect is profound.

Yatra is a moving theatre and the professional troupes move around performing in different places, generally between October and June.The term `yatra’ probably derives from the Oraon language in which it means an important ritual dance festival, and on the occasion of a festival dramatic performances are held. In Bengal and Orissa where Chaitanya’s school of Vaishnavism has a great impact. Yatra is always associated with a Vaishnava festival. Thus it themes are drawn from the story of Krishna’s life. With the decline of vaishnavite influence on the social life of Bengal from the beginning of the eighteenth century, Yatra began to draw on Puranic and secular themes too. The new form of Yatra introduced an orchestra with indivenous and foreign instruments a characteristic retained to this day. This form is known as “Nutan Yatra” and it also added prose dialogue in imitation of Western theatre. During the national movement, Yatra turned to social themes aiming at reform of social evils such as untouchability and casteism.

Zatra has a special significance for the people of Goa; indeed it is an integral part of their socio-religious life. Zatra is the annual celebration of a particular deity at a particular temple. Goans passion for drama is evidence in Zaluas, for several dramas are performed on these days in a given year.

Nautanki form of musical theatre emerged during the last few centuries in Uttar Pradesh. Its name is said to have been derived from the name of the heroine of the play “Shahjadi Nautanki”. The dialogues of Nautanki are mostly in verse form which are delivered in a high pitch to the accompaniment of the Nakkara – a percussion instrument. The style is quite melodramatic Romantic tales are preferred and the repertoire has such famous love stories as Laila Majnu, Amrsinh Rathore and Heer Ranja.

Macha is musical dance drama of Madhya Pradesh was probably born and evolved in Ujjain about two centuries ago. The term `Macha’ refers to the stage, and the plays used to be performed around Holi, during the harvest season. Mostly based on mythological stories, folk tales of romance and valour and historical episodes, the Macha also makes plentiful use of music – songs in traditional folk tunes as well as classical ragas. Some themes from contemporary social life are also depicted.

Puppets

The puppet theatre of India has a long and old tradition. String, rod, glove and shadow puppets were well known and traditional puppeteers went from place to place to entertain people with legends from myth and historical romances. The puppets show the influence of the paintings, sculpture, costumes and decorative arts of the region from which they come.

Rajasthani Kathapulli shows have become famous among the string puppet variety. Made of wood and cloth and dressed in medieval Rajasthani costume, these puppets are expertly manipulated to present historical romances. The legend of Amarsinh Rathore is very popular, with plenty of opportunity to show duels, fights and dances. Typical of this show is the accompaniment on a whistle – Boli – producing shrill notes.

The Sakhi Kundhei of Orissa, Putal Nach of Assam, Malasutri Bahuly of Maharashtra and Gombeyatta of Karnataka are other variations of string puppetry in India. BommalaUam of Tamil Nadu is a remarkably skilful art in which huge realistic puppets are manipulated by the puppeteer with the help of strings attached to a circular metal ring worn on his head and two rods in his hands. The art is found in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh also.

Shadow puppets, mostly made of animal hides, beautifully coloured and ornately perforated are popular in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa and Kerela. They have several joints to facilitate movement. While the Tolpavakoothu of Kerala and the Tholu Bomalata of Andhra Pradesh mainly depict episodes from the epics, the Togalu Gombe Atta of Karnataka also deals with secular themes and characters.

Glove puppets are manipulated by the puppeteer in full view of audience. The Pavakathakali is the fascinating variety from Kerala. The Kundheinacha of Orissa is another example.

In each mode, there is background music based on the classical and folk music of the particular regions it comes from. The puppeteers deliver the songs and dialogues in prose.

Theatre of krishna

Like the Krishna cult, the antiquity of the Krishna theatre goes beyond the Vedas and in essence are timeless. The oldest Indian dramas, or rather colloquies (sanvadas), were not composed in Sanskrit, but in Prakrit (a colloquial form of Sanskrit).

Krishna Attam : In the beautiful narrow strip of land, Kerala, around the mid-seventeenth century , emerged this colourful dramatic form, based on the Krishna legend. It has influenced the ancient Koodiyattam theatre and Kathakali. Krishna Attam is a cycle of eight plays which are performed for eight consecutive nights to unfold the entire story of Lord Krishna. The style is almost similar to Kathakali.

Gita Govinda In the tradition of Krishna theatre in India, Poet Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda, a musical opera of unique lyrical beauty and charm, occupies a premier position. The melodious dramatic poetry of the Gita Govinda was composed by the poet for the Vaishnavas adept in theatrical arts ( Gandharva Kala ), having deep emotional involvement in the love - mysticism inherent in the cult.

Ras Leela The Ras is a dance performed by playful Krishna with young and beautiful Gopa girls on the bank of river Yamuna on one full-moon night. Leela means the various deeds of the divine cowherd which includes Ras. In the Krishna cult, this mystic dance has a special ritualistic significance. Through the ages the tradition of enacting Ras and other Leelas of the Lord has remained alive.

Kala In the tiny beautiful region of Gomantaka (situated between Sahyadri ranges and the Arabian Sea), which is known for its theatrical arts and rich music, various enchanting forms of the Krishna theatre have survived through the ages. In the early folk theatre form, Kala, lay the dormant seeds of later Krishna theatre, which branched out in the form of Dashavatar Kala, Gopal Kala and Gaulan Kala. The word Kala has a special significance in the context of Krishna myth.

Ankia Nat The Krishna drama, that originated in the wake of neo-Vaishnavite movement in the 16th century in Assam, is known as Ankia Nat. The operatic one-act play depicting the Krishna legend in all its splendour is structurally a beautiful synthesis of classical and folk traditions of the region.

Koodiyattam The only extant classical Sanskrit theatre in India is Koodiyattam. This one thousand year-old theatre is the traditional privilege of Chakyars and Nambiars (temple-castes of Kerala). The make-up and dressing is less exuberant and more stylised. Through sound modulation, the percussion instruments augment the effect of acting in this dance drama.

Other folk theatre forms

Pandavani is a form of story telling evolved by the tribals of the Chhatisgarh region of Madhya Pradesh to amuse and instruct the people. This narrative form was developed to tell the story of the five Pandava brothers and considered to be of two types - Kapilak and Vedamati. A team of Pandavani performers is composed of one main narrator-singer, one or two co-singers, who also play on musical instruments like tabla and harmonium.

Tal-maddale : This narrative drama of Karnataka is predecessor of the Yakshagana , a colourful dance-drama of the region. Tal is a kind of cymbal and Maddale is a kind of drum. The chief narrator is called Bhagavata and his associates are called Arthadharis. Tal-maddale is a play without costumes, make-up, dance or acting and is performed in sitting position.

Burra Katha : This popular narrative form of Andhra Pradesh is the the story narrated on the beat of Burra drum. The traditional performers of the Burra katha believe that they are descendants of Valmiki, the composer of the epic Ramayana.

Gondhal : In Maharashtra, the dramatic narration of mythological stories, hero-lauds and folk legends form a part of a ritual dedicated to various deities. This interesting ritual with its narrative performance has deeply influenced the dramatic and narrative traditions in Maharashtra and its neighbouring regions.

Keertan : Keertan is the most popular narrative form which is prevalent in almost all parts of the country under different names such as Katha Kalakshepam, Harikatha etc. Keerta is fame, reputation and its derivative Keertan means to laud, extol, exalt, worshipping of the deity by chanting his praises, celebrating the praises of god with music and singing.

Powada : In Maharashtra the narrative hero-laud is called Powada. The first available Powada in Marathi was written on the thrilling episode of Shivaji killing his enemy Afzal Khan. The tradition of Powada singing was kept alive by the folk singers of Maharashtra known as Gondhalis and Shahirs. The Powada is presented in a most dramatic manner. High pitch singing and melodramatic acting is its soul.

Picture Showmen : The Picture Showman in ancient India was known as Mankha, and this art of narrating the story with the help of pictures was known as Mankha Vidha. This art dates back to 6th century B.C.

Garodas : In Gujarat the art of narrating stories with the help of painted pictures is practised by the members of the Garoda community. It is performed with a paper scroll with pictures painted in water colour one below the other and separated with a thick black line.

Oja-Pali : Oja-Pali of Assam is a very interesting form of story-telling which utilises many dramatic techniques to illustrate the narrative and enhance its visual impact. This art form is associated with the Manasa (serpent goddess in Assam) worship.The performers take many days to narrate the story which is divided into three parts - Deva Khanda, Baniya Khanda and Bhatiyali Khanda. The Oja is the main narrator-singer and the Palis are his associates or members of his chorus.

Villu Pattu : Villu Pattu literally means bow-song. This form of recitation (using bow-shaped musical instrument) of Tamil Nadu developed in the 15th century. There are seven to eight persons in a bow-song party who form a kind of chorus that supports the main singer-narrator. The stories from Ramayana, Mahabharata and the puranas are told in this ballad style songs.

Daskathia and Chhaiti Ghoda : Daskathia is one of the several narrative forms that flourished in Orissa. It is a performance in which a devotee narrates a story dramatically to the accompaniment of a wooden musical instrument called kathia. This is a two-narrator-performer show ; Gayaka (chief singer) and Palia (assistant) who is the co-narrator.

Earlier dramatists

Bhasa: Scholars variously place Bhasa as early as fourth century B.C. and as late as 10th century A.D. he lived in the northern region, and created plays mainly on themes drawn from the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. For example, in Madhyamavyayoga, one-act play, Bhima is involved in conflict with his son Ghatokacha who is unaware of Bhima’s identity

Kalidasa :The most famous poet and dramatist in Sanskrit, nothing much is known of Kalidasa. Generally he is placed in 4th – 5th century AD. Some scholars believe he was a court poet of Vikramaditya of Ujjaini – one of the “navaratna” of the court. He wrote splendid poems like Raghucunsha, Ritusamshara, Kumarasambhava and Meghaduta, besides three well known plays.

Shudraka :Once again the details of who Shudraka was, are obscure. But his Mrichakatika has a prologue which indicates that he was a king. Adapting the first four acts of Bhasa’s incomplete play Charudatta with minor changes and adding six more acts, he created Mriccha-katika (the Little Clay Cart), a beautiful drama full of vitality.

Vishakadatta: Probably of the sixth century, Vishakadatta was the dramatist of politics. His only surviving play, Mudrarakssa (Signet ring of Raksasa) deals with the schemes of Chanakya to foil the plots of Raksasa, the minister of the last of the Nanda rulers, and to place Chandragupta Maurya on the throne.

Harsha: Three plays are supposed to have been written by Harshavardhana the ruler of Kanauj. Ratnavali is the love story of King Udayana and princess Rat-navali who lives in disguise in the king’s harem. Priyadar-Shika has a similar theme concerning king Udayana. Nagananda has a Buddhist theme, telling of prince Jimutayahana, who gives his own body to stops the sacrifice of snakes to the divine Garuda.

Mahendravarman : The pallava king Mahendravik-raman, a contemporary of harsha, worote a delightful farce, Mattravilasa (Sport of Drunkards). Satirical dialogue throws light on the life of the times, and depicts the degeneration that that had come into different religious cults. The humour is Rabelaisian.

Bhavabhuti: Held second only to kalldasa, Bhavabhuti (early 8th century ) lived at kanyakubja, and marks the last of the greats among Sanskrit dramatists. His Mahaveeracharita and Uttararamacharita are based on the story of Rama;

Modern drama

When the British came to India, their theatre also came with them. Under the influences of Western education and theatrical traditions, English plays, especially those by Shakespeare were translated or adapted into Indian languages.

It was in Bengal and Maharashtra that the new theatere movement was initiated. In Bengal, a Russian Geralin Lebedev with the help of his tutor Golaknath Dass translated two English comedies into Bengali and staged them in 1795. thses could be considered the first’modern’ Indian plays. Gradually the new dramatic trend made itself felt in different parts of the country, Dramas began to take up social thems, voice political unrest, express resentment against alien rule, sometimes cleverly using myth and histrocial legends to do so. Furthermore the narrative element of traditional theater was reduced and psychological analysis of characters placed in different situations became prominent. The Bengali Needarpan by Dinabandhu Mitra written in 1860 took up as its theme the plight of the indigo plantation workers. Krishanji Prabhakar Khadikar wrote Kichaka Vadha in Marathi reflecting nationalist sentiments. Other plays took up social evils and strongly expressed reformist ideas. In this context, it would be worth nothing the Indian People’s theatre Association (1PTA) which became a part of the mass struggle of peasants, youth and workers. Personalities who developed into independent theatre  workers on their own after the IPTA broke up include, among others Habib Tanvir, Sheela Bhatia, Utpal Dutt, Shombhu Mitra, Balraj Sahni. Parsi theatre occupies a prominent place in theatre development of the nineteenth century. Professional Pars! Drama companies staged plays indifferent languages- Hindi, Urdu, Gujarati, English. The basic aim was entertainment, and diverse elements from diverse sourdes-folk theatre, music and dance, myth, and historical romances – were freely assimilated and adapted to techniques of Eruopean theatere to create a theatre that was truly popular. There was melodrama, spectacle, glittering costume, fights and dances. Indeed, Aga Hanshra Kashmiri who wrote for the prolific Parsi theatre , come to be known as the Indian Shakespeare. Maharashtra also saw the development of a musical  theatre under actor Balagandharva and later, the dramatist Khadikar. The plot or story line would be feeble, only there to bring in several songs set to folk or classical tunes. There was a dignified charm about the  theatre, but the surfeit of music began to pall, and soon a prose theatre grew in different regions of the country. Theatre groups like Indian National theatre and Prithvi Theatre came up. Literary personages like Bharatendu Harishchandra and Jaishankar Prassand in Hindhi, Ishwar Chandra Nanda and Norah Richards in Punjabi for example, made significant contributions in the development of regional theatre. With the advent of cinema, the suffered a setback in popularity.

However, it got a fresh impetus after independence. A conscious effort was made to search for the indigenous forms to create a “ national theatre”. Traditional forms began to be experimented with, new techniques were evolved, old and new began to be combined to create a fresh approach to theatre. Internationally well known writers were studied and their essence assimilated in a meaningful manner in Indian drama.

The National School of Drama under the directorship of E. Alkazi did much to promote modern Indian theatre. Established in 1959 by the sanjeet Natak Akademi, It became an autonomous institution in 1975, fully financed by the Government. It imparts training in dramatics and propagates theatre in the country. It has initiated training of its students in folk, traditional are regional theatre forms. Theatre is now thriving through several semi-professional and amateur dramatic groups staging plays in India languages and in English.

Some modern dramatists

Mohan Rakesh :A striking dramatist who made his impact in the 1960s, his plays are the creations of a sensitive mind exploring the world of human emotions caught up in the hard realities of life. Ashadha Ka Ek din, a lyrical play based on the life of Kalidasa, evokes the pathos inherent in life. Adhe Adhure portrays strikingly the fears and frustration of disintegrating middle ceases family, and the women who is trying to hold it together. His Laharon Ke Rajhans is yet another play dealing with basic human emotions.

Dharmveer Bharati : His Arvaha Yug is a verse play depicting the aftermath of the Mahabharata war, how it affected both the vanquished and the victors. The theme, however, was made to have contemporary relevance for it reflects on the agony and devastation of war and the role of mankind in causing the suffering.

Vijay Tendulkar :Indian theatre gained immensely though his Marathi play, Shantata Court Ahe; it reveals the shocking streaks of cruelty hidden below the ordinary middle class veneer. In the course of the rehearsal of a mock trial, one woman’s character is attacked verbally by the others with disturbing ferocity and sadistic delight. H is Sakcharman Binder- banned for alleged vulgarity but triumphantly vindicated by Bombay High Court which declared the ban void-Gidhale and Ghasiram Kotwal are studies in violence and sex inherent and suppressed in human nature. Bold themes are dealt with him seriously.

Habib Tanvir ;A new dimension to Indian theatre was given by Habib Tanvir who used folk traditions and tribal theatrical fonns of Madhya Pradesh with great effect in his productions. His Mitti Ki Cadi is a unique experiment in this direction. He created a repertory of folk and tribal actors who presented most effectively, in the dialect of Chathisgarh the play, Charandas Chor – the humorous story of a thief who has sacrifice his  life for promising good conduct

Girish Karnad: A writer of Kannada plays, Karnad made a noteworthy impact with Yayati and more so with Tughlaq which dwells on the Sultan’s personality rather than on the external events. Hayavadana, a story of a women in search of the perfect man is a powerful play based on a legend in the Kathasrisagar.

A note :- an interesting fact: Adrak ke Panje, an Urdu farce by Babban Khan, a one man show spreading the message of the small family, has been staged for over 7000 times over the last 25 odd years! It ha been translated into 27 different languages.