This age is also called Painted Grey Ware (PGW) phase.

The history of this period is based on later Vedic texts which include Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, Brahmanas, Aryankas and Upanishads. During the later Vedic phase the Aryans have thoroughly subdued the fertile plains watered by Yamuna, upper Ganga and Sadnira. They also crossed Vindhyas and established their kingdome in Deccan to the north of Godawri.

Political organization

In later vedic times popular assemblies lost importance and royal power increased at their cost.

The ‘Vidhata’ completely disappeared. The Sabha and Samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed and they came to be dominated by chiefs and rich nobles.Women were not longer permitted to site in ‘Sabha’ and in was not dominated by nobles and brahamanas.

The formation of wider kingdom made the king more powerful. Tribal authority tended to become territorial.

The term ‘Rastra’ which indicates `territory’ first appears in this period.

Traces of election appear in later vedic texts. The one who was considered best in physical and other qualities was elected Raja. he received voluntary presents called ‘Bali’ from his ordinary kins men or ‘vis’. Kingship was made hereditary and post generally went to eldest son.

King’s influence was strengthened by rituals like:

(1)        Rajsuya yajna – was the royal consecration ceremony which was to confer supreme power on king.

(2)        Vajapeya  - drink of strength, was a charot race in which royal chariot was made to win against kinsmen.The ritual lasted for 17 days and was believed not only to restore the strength of middle aged king but to elevate him from Raja to Samrat

Asvamedha – was a horse sacrifice which lasted for 3 days.?It was meant to claim unquestionable control over the areas in which royal horse roamed freely. Kings were known with different names in different region.

• Eastern King-Samrat
• Western King-Suvrat
• North King-Virat
• Southern King-Bhoja

Later vedic economy

In eastern U.P. and Videha the earliest Iron implement belongs to 700 B.C. The word Shyama or Krishna, Ayas was used for Iron.

Agriculture was the main source of livelihood of later vedic people. Ploughing was done with the help of wooden ploughshare. The Shatapatha Brahamana speaks at length about ploughing rituals. During later vedic period rice and wheat became the chief crops. For the first time vedic people came to be acquainted with rice in doab, it is called Virhi in vedic text and its remains have been discovered from Hastinapur belonging to 800 B.C. The later vedic period saw the rise of diverse crafts and arts.

Weaving was confined to women but was practiced on large scale. Leatherwork, pottery and carpentery made a great progress. The latter vedic people were acquainted with four types of pottery: Black and Red ware, Black Slipped ware, Plain Grey ware

However the most distinctive pottery of later vedic period was Painted Grey Ware. Various painted grey ware sites have been discovered in western U.P. and Delhi (Kuru – Parchola area) in Punjab and Haryana (Madra areas) and in Rajathan (Matasya area). Only few sites such as Hastinapur, Noh and Atranjikhera have been excavated.

The Term ‘Nagara’ for cities is for first time mentioned in later vedic text, but only a faint beginning of town towards the end of later vedic period can be noticed. The Shatapata Brahama refers to sea (Arabian and Indian Ocean) and sea voyages. Shatapata Brahamana speaks first of money leading.

Social organization

The later vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras.

Gotra

The institution of gotra appeared in later vedic times.

The original meaning of ‘gotra’ is cowshed or a herd of cow appeared in Rig Vedia. In Atharva Veda the word first appears meaning a clan. Gotra signified descent from a common ancestor. The were eight in numbers Kasyapa, Vasishta, Bhrigu, Gautam, Bharadwaj, Attri, Vishvamitra and Agastya. People began to gratice gotra exogamy.

Ashramas

In post vedic times we hear of Ashramas that of Brahmachari or student, Grihsta or Householder, Vanaprastha or hermit, and Sanyasi or ascetic who completely renounced the wordly life. The Chhandogya Upanishad refers to first three ashramas – recluse is not given.

The earliest clear reference to four Ashramas that of a student, householder, forest hermit and recluse is found in Jabala Upanishad.

Later vedic religion

The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods Indra and Agni lost their former importance. Prajapati, the creator god came to occupy the supreme position in later vedic pantheon. Rudra, the god of animals became more important and Vishnu came to be conceived as preserved and protector of people. Signs of idolatory appeared in later vedic period. As society came to be divided into social classes, some of the social order came to have their own duties. ‘Pushan’ who was supposed to look after cattle, came to be regarded as god of sudras.

People worshipped god for the fulfillment of material desires. Prayers continued to be rectited but sacrifices became far more important and assumed bother public and domestic character.

Towards the end of Vedic period began a strong reaction against a priestly domination, cults and rituals in lands of Panchalas and Videha where Upanishads were compiled in 600 B.C. The Upanishads criticized the rituals and laid stress on value of right belief and knowledge.

They emphasized that knowledge of self (Atman) should be acquired and relation of Atman with Brahma (God) should be properly understood. Deeds of one life affected the next. This gave the theory of Karma.

The later vedic period saw certain changes:

Wars were fought not only for cow but also for territory.

The society because agricultural, from a pastoral society of early Rig Vedic age.

The tribal society broke up into a varna-divided society.

No regular system of taxes and no professional army.

Chiefs grew at the expense of tribal peasantry and handsomely awarded the priest who supported their patrons against the common people called Vaishyas.

Vedic Literature

The word ‘veda’ is derived from Sanskrit root ‘Vid’ meaning ‘to know’ or knowledge par excellence. Vedic texts are Shruti (heard) which is distinct from Smriti (Remembrance). The four Vedas, brahamanas, Aryankas and Upanishads-all are Sruti.

The Veda consists of Mantras, Brahmanas, Aryankas and Upanishads. Martres are distributed into Samhita-Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.

Rigveda – it is foundation of all vedic literature, consists mainly of lyrics in prasise of different gods mainly Indra, Varuna and Agni. Contains 1028 Suktas, is divided into 10 Mandals or books. II to VII books are earliest and are also called family books. they are attributed to Gristamada Visvamitra, Vasudeva, Attri, Bhardwaj, Vashista, Kanva and Angiras. mandal IX is dedicated exclusively to Soma. The Tenth Mandal contains the famous Purushsukta hymn that explains the origin of four Varnas. The hymns were recited by priests styled as Hotris. Gayatric Mantra forms the most sacred hymn of Rig Veda.

Samveda – 1603 verses – derived its roots from ‘Saman’ i.e. melody. The verses of Rigveda were given tune for the purpose of singing. These songs were meant to be sung by a special class of priests called ‘udgatri’.

Yajur Veda (Book of sacrificial prayers).

Written in prose, it deals with procedure for performance of sacrifices and contains rituals as well as hymns. Its verses were recited by ‘Adhasya’ priest of ‘Advaryu’. Shayama Yajurveda – it is older and contains commentaries in prose in addition to text. Sukla Yajurveda – contains instructions only.

Atharva Veda (Book of Magical Formula) It contains charms and spells to ward off evil and disease. It s contents throw light on practices of non-Aryans.

Brahamanas

They marked the transistion from vedic to later Brahmanical order. They are the prose commentaries on vedic hymns. Basically they are appendices to the Vedas which deal with rules of sacrifice and contain ritualistic formulae for respective Vedas and priest.

Aryankas

They are final parts of the Brahmanas. The explain metaphysics and symbolism of sacrifice. Aranyakas meaning forest book were taught in forest due to their magical powers.

Upanishad

Derived from word upanish meaning (to site down near some one) are commentaries appended to Aranytakas and deals mainly with philosophy. There are 108 upanishads compiled between 800-500 B.C. They are anti-ritualistic and define doctrine of Karma, Atman (Soul) and god (Brahma). They given valuable information for the reign of king Prakshit to Bimbisar

Upvedas : Four in number:

Shruti literature: Vedangas

In order tounderstand the Vedic text it was necessary to learn the Vedangas or the limb of Vedas. These are treatise on science and arts. They are

(1)        Shiksha (Phonetics)

(2)        Kalpa (Ritual)

(3)        Vyakarana (Grammar)

(4)        Chhand (Metrics)

(5)        Nirukta (Etymology)

(6)        Jyotisha) (Astronomy)

Yaska’s Nirukta (5th century B.C.) is the oldest Indian linguistic text. Panini wrote Astadhayayi (4th Century B.C.) on Vyakaran.

Epics

The two epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata) and major puranas seems to have been finally compiled by circa A.D. 400. Of the epics the Mahabharata attributed to Vyasa is older in age and possibly reflects the state of affairs from 10th century B.C. to 4th century A.D. Originally Mahabharata consisted of 8800 verses and was called ‘Jayasamhita’ or collection dealing with victory. These were raised to 24000 and came to be known as Bharata. The final compilation brought the verses to 100,000 which came to be known as Mahabharata or Satshri Samhita.

The Ramayana of Valmiki originally consisted of 600 verses which were raised to 12000 and finally to 24,000.The Ramayana composistion started in 5th century B.C. since then it passed through five stages and fifth stage seems to be as late as 12th century A.D.

Puranas

These are termed as real histories of Ancient India because they contain the most systematic record of Indian historical tradition.

Puranas are eighteen in number and there are also up-puranas – Vishnu, Vayu, Brahma, Matsya and Bhagwata are of much historical importance

Ritual literature

Kalpa Sutra is divided into three sections in post-vedic times:

(i)         Srauta Sutras – dealing with large public sacrifices, provided for several pompous royal coronation ceremony.

(ii)        Ghriya Sutras – deals with domestic rituals connected with birth, naming, marriage etc.

(iii)       Sulva Sutras – prescribes varius kinds of measurement for the construction of sacrificial altars.

Six System of PHILOSOPHY: Sad Darshan

The six Darshans were written between the 6th century and at the time of Ashoka. These are given in the form of Sutras or aphorisms. These are as follows.

(Purva) Mimansa: Sought to explain and revive Vedas concerned with ritual. No necessity of benavolent or active God. The earliest work of this school is said to be the Sutras of Jaimini (C. 6th Century B.C.), the greatest of the early ‘mimamsa’ scholars was Shabarsvamin who flourished in the 6th century A.D.

Vaisheshika: It is older then “Nayaya. Founder was Uluka Kanada. The greatest of his commentators, Prashashtappad, perhaps lived in the sixth century.

Yoga: The basic text goes back to the Yoga Sutra of PatanJali (2nd century B.C.). The present form is attributed to Vyas, who lived seven centuries later.

Nyaya: Founder was Akshapada Gautam (early centuries of Christian era). Pakshilasvamin Vatsyayan, its main expositor, may be referred to the fourth century A.D. It gives emphasis on Tarka or logic, which the basis of all studies. Akshapader literally means “the eye-footed”, i.e., the eyes directed on the foot.

Sankhaya: Authored by Kapila, who lived about 580 B.C. Mentioned in Bhagavat, Gita, and occurring in a primitive form in the Upanishads. Its fundamental principle is the dualism of Purusha and Prakriti. Prakriti is developed by the Kinds of Gunas, viz., saltva (source of good and happiness), Raias (source of good and happiness), Rajas (source of activity and pain) Tamas (source of activity and pain) Tamas (source of ignorance, sloth and apathy). World is not real. Prakriti etemal. Sankhya does not believe in the existence of God. Prakriti and Purush-Independent of God.

Uttara Mimansa (also called Vedanta): BadrayanA is said to have formulated its main tenets in the early Christian centuries. Gaudapada, an important thinker of this school lived around the middle of the sixth century A.D. Vedanta contains 555-Sutras divided into four chapters.

City states in the later Vedic

Age, a number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the subcontinent, many mentioned during Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far back as 1000 BCE. By 500 BCE, sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as the Mahajanapadas — Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Machcha (or Matsya), Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, Kamboja — stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharastra. This period was that of the second major urbanisation in India after the Indus Valley Civilization.

Legacy of Aryans

Aryans had enriched the Indian life and culture with their contributions.

1. Lofty sense of spirituality :- They perceived God in all , animate and inanimate. They initiated the theory of evolution , the doctrine of immortality of soul , karma , reincarnation , bhakti , renunciation etc . .The six systems of philosophy have been their main contributions.

2. The Aryan Literature :- The range of the Aryan literature is very wide . Beginning with the first poetic flights in the Rigveda , the creative spirit of Aryans produced great literary works like Brahmanas , Samhitas , Aranyakas , Upanishads , Sastras , Sutras , Ramayana , mahabharata etc .  In their literature there are countless evidences of the spirit of systematization .

3. The Caste system and the four Ashramas :- The caste system was the grading of people into mutually exclusive groups based upon differences of occupational functions and supposed heredity . The Varna-ashram dharma was the conception of the life in one sense peculiarly Aryan . It makes an attempt to combine materiality with spirituality , worldly success with spiritual excellence .

4. Sanskrit :- It is considered as the most perfect and scientific language in the world, Scholars have made it the basis of the science of philology . It has deeply influenced all other languages of India in vocabulary and structure .

5. Rural Life :- The Aryans were rural and pastoral in their lives . This made them lay out villages . In due course , village became an important unit of the social , economic and political life of the Aryans. Consequently local Self Government had well evolved in villages . Traces of the Aryan culture are perceived mostly in villages.

Reasons for the rise of the New Religious Movements :-

Burden of Ritualism :- By the 6^th century B.C.E the vedic philosophy and religion lost their original purity and had decayed in cumbrous and meaningless ritual .People , therefore groaned under the heavy burden of elaborated and expensive rites and ceremonial rituals .

  Sacrifices :- The Aryan belief in the divine power of sacrifices was much exploited by the priestly class , The actual killing and sacrificing of living animals and sometimes even human beings on certain ceremonial occasions created a feeling of revolt and contempt against such practices .

The Supremacy of Brahmanas :- There was existing the growing monopoly of the unscrupulous and exacting priestly class .Their galling dominance disgusted the masses. They claimed to be the leading exponents of the Vedic Tradition. There were endless and elaborate sacrificial rites which required their presence . They dominated every aspect of the life of the Aryans right from birth and death .

  The Caste System :- The Caste system developed its rigidity and vigour and its fetters were becoming tighter . Change from one caste to another was becoming impossible . The members of the low caste had to face a very miserable plight. They were treated with contempt .