It is believed that the sage Narada introduced the art of music to the Earth. The origin can be traced back to Vedic age, nearly two thousand years ago. It is said that the sound that pervades the whole universe, i.e. Nadabrahma, itself represents the divinity. Organised Indian music owes its origin to the Samaveda.

The earliest Raga is speculated to be 'Sama Raga'. Theories and treatises began to be written about how the primitive sound 'Om' gave rise to the various notes. The first reference to music was made by Panini (500 BC) and the first reference to musical theory is found in Rikpratisakhya (400 BC).

Bharata's Natya Sastra (4th Century AD) contains several chapters on music. This is probably the first work that clearly elaborated the octave and divided it into 22 keys. The next major work on music was Dathilam, which also endorses the existence of the 22 sruti per octave and even goes to suggest that these 22 srutis are the only ones a human body could make. Saranga Deva, among other things, defined almost 264 Ragas, including some Dravidian and North Indian ones..

Of the other important works on Indian music, mention may be made of Brihaddesi (9 AD) written by Matanga, which attempts to define the word 'Raga', Sangeeta Makaranda (11th century AD) written by Narada, which enumerates 93 Ragas and classifies them into masculine and feminine species, Swaramela-kalanidhi of Ramamatya (16 AD) and Chaturdandi-prakssika of Venkatamakhi (17 AD).

In the beginning music was devotional in content and was purely used for ritualistic purposes and was restricted to temples. During the late Vedic period (3000-1200 BC), a form of music called Samgana was prevalent which involved chanting of the verses set to musical patterns. Various forms of music like Jatigan were evolved to narrate the epics.

Between 2 to7 AD a form of music called Prabandh Sangeet, which was written in Sanskrit, became very popular. This form gave way to a simpler form called ‘dhruvapad’, which used Hindi as the medium.

The Gupta Period is considered as the golden era in the development of Indian music. All the music treatises like Natya Shastra and Brihaddeshi were written during this period.

One of the strongest and most significant influences on Indian music has perhaps been that of Persian music, which brought in a changed perspective in the style of Northern Indian music. In the 15th century AD, as a result of the patronage given to the classical music by the rulers, the devotional dhruvapad transformed into the dhrupad form of singing. The khayal developed as a new form of singing in the 18th century AD.

The Indian classical music, thus, developed from the ritualistic music in association with folk music and other musical expressions of India's extended neighbourhood, developing into its own characteristic art. It is then that the two schools of music resulted, the Hindustani (North Indian music) and the Carnatic (South Indian music). Historical roots of both Hindustani and Carnatic classical music traditions stem from Bharata's Natyashastra.

The two traditions started to diverge only around 14th Century AD. Carnatic music is kriti based and saahitya (lyric) oriented, while Hindustani music emphasises on the musical structure and the possibilities of improvisation in it. Hindustani music adopted a scale of Shudha Swara saptaka (octave of natural notes) while Carnatic music retained the traditional octave. Both systems have shown great assimilative power, constantly absorbing folk tunes and regional tilts and elevating many of them to the status of ragas. These systems have also mutually influenced eachother.

Basics (grama)

The basic scale drama of Indian music is heptatonic and its seven notes or suara – sadja, rishabha, gandhara, madhyama, panchama, dhaivata, nishada abbreviated to sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni. These correspond approximately to the notes of the European major scale. They may be elaborated with half tones of varying intervals classified according to the number of srutis they contain. The sruti is a theoretical interval of which the scale contains 22. There were eighteen melodic modes called jatis which gradually gave place to the more specific ragas – a noteworthy change which has since remained the main characteristic of Indian music. The concept and practice of raga, according to scholars, matured by the fifth century A.D. Raga is a series of five or more notes, upon which a melody is based. Ragas were recognized named on the basis of several factors, classified and defined. Matanga’s Brihaddesi deals with these aspects.

Talas are rhythmic cycles. They have a universal unity, besides being quite complicated. The fundamental units of the Indian rhythmic structure are thisra(three), chatusra(four), khanda(five), misra(seven) and sankeer-tana(nine). There is a complex range from the simple 2/4 time(aditala) and ¾(rupaka) to the fourteen units of ata tala. These rhythms ornamented with grace notes and varied by syncopation result in a remarkably complex rhythmic structure. Bharata mentions 32 talas but there are now over 120, formed by different combinations.

Compositions

Two broad categories of musical – Anibaddha (open) and nibandha (closed). The most important antibadha is the alap. Most Indioan classical music begins with the alap (or alapana presenting the raga without reference to tata. From melodic point of view, the alap is the most important part of the performance.

Within the alap there are stages of development which may lead to a faster section called jod in north India and tanam in south India. In the jod though there is no fixed time-measure there is an introduction of a distinct `pulse’. In north Indian instrumental music, the jod often culminates in a section called jhala where the fast rhythms produced on the drone strings and the melody one weave together. In the niband, there is a shred time-measure and more or less fixed sequence of notes and a specific relationship with the tala cycle.

Hindustani and carnatic styles

Indian music is now styled Hindustani (North) and Carnatic (South). They have several common features but are distinguishable from each other.

How and when they developed as two different streams is not quite clear. It was in the medieval age that the branching out became clear. The popular belief that the separate development of Hindustani music was due to the influence of Ami Khusrau is not accepted by scholars. It may have developed as a consequence of regional influences.

The Hindustani school began to observe strictly a time theory of ragas, Ragas come to be classified in different ways in the two systems. The North took six ragas as primary and also arranged them on the analogy of family relationship –husband and wife, sons and daughters. The six primary ragas were Bhairava, Kausika, Hindola, Dipak, Sriraga,Megh.. Bhairava is suitable for performance at dawn, Megh in the morning, Dipak and Sriraga in the after noon, Hindola and Kausika at night.

Carnatic  music was put on scientific lines at the time of Vidyaranya in the early part of 14^th century. His Sangitasara, may be regarded as the forerunner of the southern system. The Melakarta system conceives of danaka (parent) ragas and danya (derivative) rages. In the mid-seventeenth century Venkatamakhin wrote the Chaturdandiprakasika, which became the bed-rock of the Carnatic system. Venkatamakhin devised the 72 mela raga system under which any rage, old, obsolete, current, or even of the future could be brought in.

In Carnatic music there are no purely instrumental compositions, but in Hindustani system there is a form called gat, derived form plucked stringed instrumental technique and another called dhun – apparently derived ham folk tunes. Neither of these has text. But in both Karnatka and Hindustani systems importance is given to compositions for vocal delivery, i.e. those with meaningful words. It would be remarked, however, that the composition is rarely and end in itself; one of its important functions is to provide a kame of reference to which the performer comes back after an improvisation.

Hindustani music compositions

The dhrupad (dhruvapada) is an ancient form, probably developed from the Prabandha. Scholars differ on who actually invented it. It is agreed that Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior and Emperor Wtbar played a distinguished part in the growth and developed this form. Dhrupad is a serious and sober composition which demands effort & am the vocal chords and lungs. It starts with an alap followed by jod and then the four composed sections – Sthayi, antara, sanchart and abhog. The lyrics are generally in Braj Bhasha and involve veera and srinagar rasas. The Daggar family in modern times has done much to revive and popularize the dhrupad.

Dhamar describes the paly of Lord Krishna, especially `Holi’ (festival of colours) of Radha and Krishna and the gopies. (hence some caR it `Hori Dhamar’).

Khayal is a word derived from Persian, and implies `idea’ or `iamgaination’. Though its origin is attributed to Am Khusrau, it is agreed that the form came into prominence due to the efforts of Sultan Mohammed Sharqui in the 15^th century and gained classical status from the one of `Sadarang’ Nyamat Khan and `Adarang’ at the court of Mohammad Shah `Rangeela’  (18^th Century). Unlike the drupad, the khayal is more delicate and romantic, and has more freedom in structure and form.   

There are four major gharanas or schools of Khayal, The Gwalior gharana is the oldest and most elaborate in technique; its most famous exponents were Nathan Khan and Peer Baksh. Hei Sujan Khan is said to have begun the Agra gharana. Faiyyaz Khan gave it a fresh lyrical touch so that it has come to be better known as the Rangeela gharana. The Jaipur Atroli gharana is associated with Alladiya Khan. The Kirana gharana is a recent school which has been developed by Adbul Wahid Khan and Abdul Karim Khan.

The thumri is a light form based on the romantic-religious literature inspired by the bhakti movement. It employs folk scales, and the text of the songs is of primary importance. It was very famous in the 19^th century under the patronage of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. Of the two styles the Poorab or eastern style has slow and subdued exposition while the Punjab style is fast and lively.

The tappa is said to have developed from the songs of camel drivers of the North-West Usually in Punjabi, the tappa is noted for its quick turns of phrase.

In taranga there are no meaningful words: syllables-teem, tarana dere, tere, tome, nadir, etc, are strung together together in a rhythmic piece set to a rage. It is generally composed in a fast tempo. It is said that the syllables are “adaptations of mnemonic signatures of the table and sitar strokes”, or perhaps “multilations of Perisans and Arabic words”.

The songs of the poet-saints of the Medieval Age bhakti movement have had an immense impact on Indian music. Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda has provided songs and themes, especially to the thumri Specific ragas have been named after Surdas and Mirabai – Surdasi Malhar, Mira ki Malhar. A new type of song developed under the influence of these saint-poets, variously called bhajan, khan or abhang; these form an intermediate stage between classical and folk music – less abstract that the former and more sophisticated than the latter. Kirtans are special features of Bengal, their best known composers being Chandidas and Chaitanya. The abhangs of Eknath, Jananesvar and Tukaram have enriched the Marathon repertoire. The sabads of the Smiths come in the same category of devotional music. The Indo-Muslim repertoire of religious conge, called Qawwali, may be sung by individuals or in groups – as they are at the urs at various shrines. The form is said to have begun with Am’ Khusrau. It may be in praise of Allah, or the phrophet Muhammad and his descendants, or in praise of the patron saint of the singer. Many a one the quwwal sings on the basic theme of one God – whatever be the name – and that all mystic paths lead to the realization of the one.

The ghazal is yet another product of the Persian influence on Hindustani music. Derived from the Urdu poetic form of the same name, ghazals are composed of independent couplets. Thought essentially love or erotic poetry, there is the underlying Sufielement, with God as the beloved. The verse of ghazals may be interpreted in several ways – secular, mystical and pidlosophical The ghazal has achieved great popularity in the north, some of its famous composers being Mirza Ghalib and Bahadur Shah Zafar.

Carnatic music compositions

The vocal form, ragam-tanam-pallava generally the main item in Carnatic music concerts. The ragam is an elaborately improvised alapana in completely free time, and the tanam, though rhythmic, is set unmeasured. It is the final section – apllavi that is a composition of words and melody set to a tala. The statement of the composition is followed by elaborate rhythmic and melodic variations still using the pallavi.

The kriti is, perhaps, the most popular form in Carnatic music. Kriti means a `creation’; kritanai, `to sing’. Though used interchangeably, there is a subtle difference between the two – the Kirtanai refers more particularly to a devotional song, with the poetic beauty of the song dominating; in the kriti it is the music which is more important. The major part of the modern repertoire of kritis comes from the three composers, Thyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Shastri, who lived in the late eighteenth and early eighteenth centuries. However, the Tallapakam composers (14^th -15^th centuries) are credited with the earliest kris which were mostly in Telegu and art aged into three section – pallas, anupallavi, and charanam, Purandharasdasa (1480-1564) contributed much to the development of the Kriti The kriti is embellished by decorative phrases such as sangati, a built-in variations of a phrase; niraval, improvised melodic variations of text; svara kalpana, improvisation based on the sargam passages; chittasvara, a set of svara in the raga and tala of the kriti.

The varnam is a completely composed piece, designed to show the characteristic phrases and melodic movements of a raga, and is usually performed at the beginning of a concert.

The padam and jawali are generally love songs, more lyrical than the kriti using poetic managery characteristic of the bhakti movement. Padams are, however, of a slower tempo and graver import with the love-terms referring to the human yearning for the adored godhead Jawalis are not quite as allegoric as padams; they are direct descriptions of human love, and faster in tempo, than padanm.

The tillana is the south Indian musical too, bhakti influenced the development, though as early as 7^th-9^th centuries AD. Some of the earliest known hymns were the tevaram, which, indeed, formed the foundations of the musical culture of the Tamil st people Tevarama were sung by a class of singers known as odward. The Tiruvachakam of Manikavachakarand the Tirupugazh of Arunagirinathar were other devotionals. Kirtanaism as already mentioned, were more devotionals. A great composer of Kirtanaiswas Bhadrachalal Ramadas (17^th century) who sang in Telugu.

Musical instruments of india

With a civilization dating back to Vedic times, it is but natural that this country has been able to evolve and develop a vast variety of musical instruments- wood-wind, percussion and stringed. It can be said that it is unrivalled in this respect. Music is firmly interwoven with its social fabric and no social or religious assembly can do without it. Indeed a few instruments are considered auspicious.The unique feature is that all these instruments have stood the test of time and are relevant even today. Only in the case of a few instruments, certain marginal changes have been made.There are references by the Vedas to the Veena played by Saraswati, the flute by Krishna and Damaru by Shiva.

Wind instruments

Nadaswaram (Carnatic) It is double reeded and has two distinct parts a wooden tubular body fitted with a large wooden belly at the lower end. It has eight finger holes and four vent holes on the side.The sound emanates from _-reed inserted at the upper end. The reed is made of wood. It is the ous instrument - a must in the temples and all religious and socialfunctiuons. It is essentially open air instrument.

Flute (Carnatic): This is reedless and made out of seasoned bamboo. It at one end and open at the other. Besides the Jilow-hole at the top e int holes. It is held horizontally.

The Hindustani varieties

Shehnai: Double reeded, tubular gradually widening towards the outer end, with a metal funnel. It has eight holes but only the upper seven are used. The eights is for regulating the pitch by applying wax.

Bansuri: This is almost the same as the Carnatic version of flute. Only it is very lengthy unlike its counterpart.

Surani is prevalent in Himachal Pradesh. Conically bored, this has an integrated bell. It has seven finger holes and one thumb hole at the rear.

Mohuri: From Madhya Pradesh, also of conical bore with a metal bell with seven finger holes. A bunch of hair fixed in front of the bell not only serves as a decoration but also helps to mellow down its shrill sound.This is used as an accompaniment in community dances.

Karna: From Rajasthan, is a straight brass trumpet having a conical bore. It has a wide funnel shaped opening at the end.

Khung from Manipur. Its small ball shaped gourd serves as the air chamber and a protruding nozzle fitted with a bamboo tubes in groups of three are fixed on the upper side of the gourd. It serves as an accompaniment for tribal dances in North-Eastern India.

Singa from Orissa and M.P. It is made of natural horn.The horn tip is a sawn and is fitted with a small mouthpiece.The sound emanating is voluminous.

Pungi from Rajasthan is a snake charmer’s flute, combining two bamboo flutes each with a single beating reed and finger holes bored into the lower end of the air chamber. It has a sonorous and hypnotizing sound.

Percussion instruments

Carnatic

Mridangam: The most perfect drum used as accompaniment in Carnatic music. Its right wing has stratas: the thick layer of buffalo hide, the thin inset of calf leather and the black for tonal embellishment. The left wing is made of buffalo hide and is coated with flour paste for purpose of mellowing to ensure vibration.

Ghatam : A simple earthen pot made of burnt clay with a small mouth and a big belly. Fingers and palms are used for playing this and for producing vibrations.

Khanjira : It varies from six to ten inches in diameter.The playing side is covered with monitor’s skin with the other left open.

Edakka : from Kerala. Slung on the left shoulder the right face is struck with a stick while the left hand controls the tension on the parchment by varying the pressure on the tape wound round the centre. It accompanies Kathakai: and other dances of Kerala.

Chenda : also from Kerala is a cylindrical drum made out of a single block of wood covered with thick parchment held by leather straps. It is vertically slung from the waist and struck with two sticks. An essential accompaniment for Kathakali.

Thavil : from Tamil Nadu tapers on both sides.The side face is played by hand and the left with a drum stick. It is capable of the most intricate patterns and a beat.

Hindustani

Tabla : The most popular and sought after instrument. A must in music and dance. Made out of seasoned shisham wood, it is covered with parchment with a permanent black paste at the centre.

Pakahwaj: A two faced barrel drum with shell made of hollowed wood. This is almost similar to the mridangam in structure. A must for Dhrupad style.

Stringed instruments (carnatic)

Tambura : Made of jack-wood often beautifully carved and even ornamented with ivory the tambura helps to provide the drone. The strings are plucked by fingers and the vibrations are brought out by inserting a thin silk thread on the spring board.

Veena : A very highly developed stringed instrument is perhaps the best Known instrument of south India.There are twenty-four metal frets on the finger board made of wax. There are four main strings on the top and three below for drone and rhythmic support. The strings are plucked with a plectrum worn on the fore-finger.The only instrument capable of releasing the minutest nuances. It is is fully gamaka oriented.

Gottuvadhyam : Same as the Veena except that is has no frets. Legend has it that Lord Ganesha was its originator. Vibrations are harnessed by a : /lindrical piece of horn or wood. It is used mostly as a solo instrument. As it las no frets, its playing is very difficult as;a single slip in the pressure would :ause musical havoc. Its practitioners can be counted on fingers.

The stringed instruments of Hindustani music :

Tanpura: Only the spelling differs from the South Indian Tambura, But “ere are also large size tanpuras with huge bellies made of gourd. While the ‘Bambura has only four strings some tanpuras have four to five.

Sitar: It is a fretted instrument. It is believed that it was brought to India by Amir Khusrao. It is held diagonal and played.The gourd serves as the resonator. It consists of seven strings and eleven to twelve sympathetic strings for ~nsuring residuary vibrations. It has now become internationally famous .

Sarod: Another plucked instrument of classical order. The body is made of wood and the finger board, fretless a chromium coated metal plate to facilitate gliding of the fingers. As in the Sitar, there are six main strings and twelve sympathetic strings. It has also gained international popularity.

Sarangi: A fretless bowed instrument of classical order played solo or as accompaniment. There are three main gut strings and a number of sympathetic strings made of steel. As its sound approximates to the human voice it is an ideal instrument for vocal concerts.

Kamaicha: It is from Rajasthan. Made out of a single block of wood with an integrated peg box, finger board and resonator. There are three main strings and a number of sympathetic strings on the side. It is played with a long curved bow made of wood and horse-hair.

Rabab: This belongs to Jammu and Kashmir. It is a plucked stringed instrument with a wooden sound box. There are three tuning pegs on each side. It has five main strings, three of gut and two of steel. There are also eleven sympathetic steel strings tied to the pegs. The strings are plucked with a wooden plectrum. It has a covered neck and a notched bone bridge.

Ravan Hatha: This hails from Rajasthan. They say that this is the fore­father of violin as the structure is basically the same. It is bored; the resonator is made of coconut shell and is elongated. It has two main strings of horse­hair with sympathetic strings of steel. The bow sticks are also of horse-hair jingle bells at the top. Used mostly by touring musicians who sing ballets.

Dhruba: This fretted instrument is played with a bow. It is tuned with the help of pegs places on the top right of the instrument.

Hindustani Classical Singers and Gharanas to which they belong:-

Institutional support to Music

1901 - V.D. Palukar’s Ghandarva Mahavidhyalay.

Sangeet Sangh - Calcutta (Efforts to combine Indian music with Europe).

1916 - All India Music Conference at Baroda.

1919 - All India Music Academy 1928 (Chennai).

Morris College of Hindustani Music at Lucknow - subsequently developed into the Bhatkhande University of Hindustani Music. SPIC- Macay LECDEM (Lecture-cum-Demonstration) - which brings the guru sishya tradition to life.

MUSIC FESTIVALS

Sangeet Natak Akademi's festival- New Delhi. `The Sangeet Natak Akademi - India's national academy for music, dance and drama - is the first National Academy of the arts set-up by the Republic of India. It was created on 31st of May 1952.As the apex body specializing in the performing arts of the country, the Akademi also renders advice and assistance to the Government of India in the task of formulating and implementing policies and programmes in the field.Additionally, the Akademi carries a part of the responsibilities of the state for fostering cultural contacts between various regions in India, and between India and the world.

Thyagraja Festival- Tyagaraja Aradhana is an annual Carnatic music festival very year on Pushya Bahula Panchami day when the saint attained samadhi under the auspices of Sri Thyagabrahma Mahotsava Sabha at the saint's samadhi at Thiruvaiyaru

Bhadkhande Festival -Lucknow. Pandit Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande was an Indian musicologist who wrote the first modern treatise on Hindustani Classical Music. Ragas used to be classified into Raga (male), Ragini (female), and Putra (children). Bhatkhande reclassified them into the currently used Thaat system. He noted that several ragas did not conform to their description in ancient Sanskrit texts. He explained the ragas in an easy-to-understand language and composed several bandishes which explained the grammar of the ragas.  

Tansen Festival-Gwalior. Organized in a place near the tomb of Tansen in Gwalior this music festival lasts for five whole days. Famous classical singers from all corners of India come to Gwalior to present their music skills during the Tansen Festival. 

Music Academy Festival-Chennai.

Music and Dance Festival-Chennai.

Sur-Singar Festival-Mumbai.

Shanmukhananda-Mumbai.

Modern developments in Music

Music late dance fell into some disrepute in the early nineteenth century, but towards the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century, new inspirations began to emerge and a revival took place. Rabindranath Tagore composed unique songs which go under the name of Rabindra Sangeet. Ice patriotic fervour of the early twentieth century drew many musicians into the freedom struggle – Kazl Nazrul Islam, Vishnu Digambar Paluskar, Subramania Bharati – and they all sought to establish Indian music and musicology on the world map.

Institutions were established to encourage the study of music as a science. In 1901, Pandit Vishnu Digambar Paluskar, in his effort to remove music from the stranglehold of gharanas and give it a broader base, opened a school of music at Lahore – the Gandharva Mahavidyalays. Slowly the Lahore base shifted to Bombay. Later he opened the Prayag Samiti at Allahabad. Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande was another notable pioneer in rescuing music Oom disrepute and going it deserved. His efforts led to the Marris College of Music being established in 1926 at Lucknow. It has now been renamed the Bhatkande College of Music. In the meanwhile in 1919, at All-India Music Academy was established. All this opened vast avenues for research, study and experiment and a better understanding of different styles, besides fostering an interest in music. In 1928 the Madras Music Academy was founded and it did much to revive, interest in Carnatic Music. Gradually many Indian universities and schools had music on their academic curricula, and several students of their rolls are studying and doing research in this filed. The spread of interest in music was also due to the part played by All India Radio, which brought concerts by famous musicians right inside the home and gave chance for building talents to be aired. Cinema too popularized music, though film songs are now very much influenced by Western techniques.