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Chapter 5 Through the Eyes of Travellers Perceptions of Society (c. Tenth to Seventeenth century)
Frenchman François Bernier (17th century)
Al- Biruni and the Kitab-Ul-Hind
From Khwarizm to the Punjab-
The Kitab-ul-Hind
Ibn Battuta's Rihla
Places visited by Ibn Battuta in Afghanistan, Sind and Punjab
Francois Bernier- A Doctor with a Difference
Making sense of an alien world Al-Biruni and the Sanskritic Tradition
He discussed several “barriers” that he felt obstructed understanding.
Ibn Battuta and Indian cities
Bernier and the "Degenerate" East
According to Bernier, one of the fundamental differences between Mughal India and Europe was the lack of private property in land in the former
Women- Slaves, sati and Labourers
Chapter 6 Bhakti- Sufi Traditions Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts (C. Eighth to Eighteenth century)
Poems of Prayer- Early traditions of Bhakti
The Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu Some of the earliest bhakti movements (c. 6th century) were led by the Alvars (literally, those who are “immersed” in devotion to Vishnu) and Nayanars (literally, leaders who were devotees of Shiva). They travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods. During their travels the Alvars and Nayanars identified certain shrines as abodes of their chosen deities. Very often large temples were later built at these sacred places. These developed as centres of pilgrimage. Singing compositions of these poet-saints became part of temple rituals in these shrines, as did worship of the saints’ images. Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system. Compositions by the Alvars, the Nalayira Divyaprabandham, was frequently described as the Tamil Veda, thus claiming that the text was as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit that were cherished by the Brahmanas Perhaps one of the most striking features of these traditions was the presence of women. For instance, the compositions of Andal, a woman Alvar, were widely sung (and continue to be sung to date). Andal saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu; her verses express her love for the deity. Another woman, Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, adopted the path of extreme asceticism in order to attain her goal
The Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu
Relations with the state
An image of Shiva as Nataraja
The Virashaiva tradition in Karnataka
Religious ferment in North India
New Strands in the Fabric Islamic traditions
Faiths of rulers and subjects
The popular practice of Islam
All those who adopted Islam accepted, in principle, the five “pillars” of the faith:
A Khojaki manuscript
The ginan were transmitted orally before being recorded in the Khojaki script that was derived from the local landa (“clipped” mercantile script) used by the linguistically diverse community of Khojahs in the Punjab, Sind and Gujarat.
Names for communities People were occasionally identified in terms of the region from which they came Turkish rulers were designated as Turushka, Tajika were people from Tajikistan and Parashika were people from Persia Turks and Afghans were referred to as Shakas and Yavanas (a term used for Greeks). A more general term for these migrant communities was mlechchha, indicating that they did not observe the norms of caste society and spoke languages that were not derived from Sanskrit. The Shah Hamadan mosque in Srinagar, on the banks of the Jhelum, is often regarded as the “jewel in the crown” of all the existing mosques of Kashmir. Built in 1395, it is one of the best examples of Kashmiri wooden architecture.
Names for communities
The growth of Sufism
Sufis and the state
Khanqahs and silsilas
Outside the khanqah
The Chishtis in the Subcontinent
Chishtis adapted successfully to the local environment and adopted several features of Indian devotional traditions.
Life in the Chishti khanqah
Chishti devotionalism: ziyarat and qawwali
Languages and communication
New Devotional Paths dialogue and dissent in Northern India
Kabir
Baba Guru Nanak and the Sacred Word
Guru Gobind Singh also laid the foundation of the Khalsa Panth (army of the pure) and defined its five symbols:
Under him the community got consolidated as a socio-religious and military force.
Mirabai, the devotee princess
Chapter 7 An Imperial Capital- Vijayanagara (c. Fourteenth to Sixteenth Century)
The discovery of hampi
Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans
Kings and traders
The apogee and decline of the empire
South India, c. fourteenth-eighteenth century
The Rayas and the nayakas
Vijayanagara- The Capital and its Environs
Vijayanagara, was characterised by a distinctive physical layout and building style.
Water resources
Fortifications and roads
The urban core
The Royal centre
The mahanavami dibba
Other buildings in the royal centre
The Sacred centre
Gopurams and mandapas
Chapter 8 Peasants, Zamindars and the State Agrarian society and the Mughal Empire (c. Sixteenth- Seventeenth centuries)
Peasants and Agricultural production
Peasants and their lands-
Two kinds of peasants –
Irrigation and technology-
An abundance of crops-
The Village Community
Panchayats and headmen-
In eastern India all marriages were held in the presence of the mandal.
Village artisans
Women in Agrarian society
Forests and Tribes
The Zamindars
Land Revenue System
The Flow of Silver
The Ain- I- Akbari of Abu'l Fazl Allami
Chapter 9 Kings and Chronicles The Mughal Courts (c. Sixteenth- Seventeenth centuries)
The rulers of the Mughal Empire saw themselves as appointed by Divine Will to rule over a large and heterogeneous populace
The Mughals and their Empire
The Production of Chronicles
From Turkish to Persian-
The making of manuscripts-
The Painted Image
The Akbar Nama and The Badshah Nama
The Ideal Kingdom
A unifying force
Just sovereignty as social contract
Capitals and Courts
The Mughal court
Titles and gifts
The Imperial Household
The Imperial Officials
Information and empire
Beyond the centre: provincial administration
Persian was made the language of administration throughout, but local languages were used for village accounts.
Beyond the Frontiers
The Safavids and Qandahar
The Ottomans- pilgrimage and trade
Jesuits at the Mughal court
Important Terminologies- Ulama (plural of alim, or one who knows) are scholars of Islamic studies. As preservers of this tradition they perform various religious, juridical and teaching functions Matrilocal residence is a practice where women after marriage remain in their natal home with their children and the husbands may come to stay with them Wali (plural auliya) or friend of God was a sufi who claimed proximity to Allah, acquiring His Grace (barakat) to perform miracles (karamat). Yavana is a Sanskrit word used for the Greeks and other peoples who entered the subcontinent from the North West. Amara is believed to be derived from the Sanskrit word samara, meaning battle or war. It also resembles the Persian term amir, meaning a high noble Pargana was an administrative subdivision of a Mughal province. Peshkash was a form of tribute collected by the Mughal state. Amin was an official responsible for ensuring that imperial regulations were carried out in the provinces. A diachronic account traces developments over time, whereas a synchronic account depicts one or several situations at one particular moment or point of time. Kornish was a form of ceremonial salutation in which the courtier placed the palm of his right hand against his forehead and bent his head. It suggested that the subject placed his head – the seat of the senses and the mind – into the hand of humility, presenting it to the royal assembly Chahar taslim is a mode of salutation which begins with placing the back of the right hand on the ground, and raising it gently till the person stands erect, when he puts the palm of his hand upon the crown of his head. It is done four (chahar) times. Taslim literally means submission. Shab-i barat is the full moon night on the 14 Shaban, the eighth month of the hijri calendar, and is celebrated with prayers and fireworks in the subcontinent. It is the night when the destinies of the Muslims for the coming year are said to be determined and sins forgiven.
Important Terminologies-
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