CHAPTER 1
WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND WHEN?

Life near Narmada River-

• Skilled gatherers
• knew about the vast wealth of plants in the surrounding forests, and collected roots, fruits and other forest produce for their food
• hunted animals

Life in Sulaiman and Kirthar hills to the northwest-

• Women and men first began to grow crops such as wheat and barley about 8000 years ago are located here.
• Rearing animals like sheep, goat, and cattle,
• People lived in villages

Life in Garo hills to the north-east and the Vindhyas in central India-

• Agriculture developed
• Rice was first grown is to the north of the Vindhyas.

Life near Indus River and its tributaries-

• About 4700 years ago, some of the earliest cities flourished on the banks of these rivers.
• Later, about 2500 years ago, cities developed on the banks of the Ganga and its tributaries, and along the sea coasts.
• Tributary- smaller rivers that flow into a larger river

Life near Ganga and its tributary called the Son-

• South of the Ganga was known as Magadha now lying in the state of Bihar
• Its rulers were very powerful, and set up a large kingdom.

Names of the land

• The word India comes from the Indus, called Sindhu in Sanskrit.
• The Iranians and the Greeks who came through the northwest about 2500 years ago and were familiar with the Indus, called it the Hindos or the Indos, and the land to the east of the river was called India.
• The name Bharata was used for a group of people who lived in the northwest, and who are mentioned in the Rigveda, the earliest composition in Sanskrit (dated to about 3500 years ago).
• Later it was used for the country.

Manuscript

• They were written by hand (this comes from the Latin word ‘manu’, meaning hand)
• These were usually written on palm leaf, or on the specially prepared bark of a tree known as the birch, which grows in the Himalayas.
• Over the years, many manuscripts were eaten away by insects, some were destroyed, but many have survived, often preserved in temples and monasteries.
• Subjects: Religious beliefs and practices, the lives of kings, medicine and science.
• Besides, there were epics, poems, plays.
• Language- Sanskrit, others were in Prakrit (languages used by ordinary people) and Tamil.

Inscriptions

• These are writings on relatively hard surfaces such as stone or metal.
• Sometimes, kings got their orders inscribed so that people could see, read and obey them.
• There are other kinds of inscriptions as well, where men and women (including kings and queens) recorded what they did.
• For example, kings often kept records of victories in battle.
• Inscription in Kandhar (Afghanistan; 2250 years ago)- Orders of a ruler named Ashoka

Script

Letters or Signs

What do dates mean?

• 2000 means 2000 years after the birth of Christ.

All dates before the birth of Christ are counted backwards and usually have the letters BC (Before Christ) added on

1. BC-  ‘Before Christ.’
2. AD - two Latin words, ‘Anno Domini’, meaning ‘in the year of the Lord’ (i.e. Christ).
3. CE stand for ‘Common Era’ and BCE for ‘Before Common Era’.
4. We use these terms because the Christian Era is now used in most countries of the world.

• In India we began using this form of dating from about two hundred years ago.
• And sometimes, the letters BP meaning ‘Before Present’ are used.

SOME IMPORTANT DATES

• The beginning of Agriculture (8000 years ago)
• The first cities on the Indus (4700 years ago)
• Cities in the Ganga valley, a big kingdom in Magadha (2500 years ago)
• The present (about 2000 AD/CE)

Chapter 2
ON THE TRAIL OF THE EARLIEST PEOPLE

Why hunter gatherers moved from place to place?

• 1^st If they had stayed at one place for a long time, they would have eaten up all the available plant and animal resources.
• 2^nd, animals move from place to place— either in search of smaller prey, or, in the case of deer and wild cattle, in search of grass and leaves. That is why those who hunted them had to follow their movements.
• 3^rd, plants and trees bear fruit in different seasons. So season wise movement
• 4^th, people, plants and animals need water to survive. So near rivers

Hunter- gatherers places

Making stone tools

The first is called stone on stone.

Pressure flaking-

• Here the core was placed on a firm surface.
• The hammer stone was used on a piece of bone or stone that was placed on the core, to remove flakes that could be shaped into tools.

Kurnool caves-

• Andhra Pradesh
• Traces of ash which tells fire was used in that period.
• Use of fire- as a source of light, to roast meat, and to scare away animals)

Ostriches in India-

• Ostriches were found in India during the Palaeolithic period.
• Large quantities of ostrich egg shells were found at Patne in Maharashtra.

Palaeolithic-

• ‘palaeo’, meaning old,
•  ‘lithos’, meaning stone
•  2 million- 12,000 years ago

Mesolithic (middle stone)-

• Stone tools found during this period are generally tiny, and are called microliths.
• Microliths were probably stuck on to handles of bone or wood to make tools such as saws and sickles.
• At the same time, older varieties of tools continued to be in use.

Rock paintings-

• Madhya Pradesh and southern Uttar Pradesh
• These paintings show wild animals, drawn with great accuracy and skill

Neolithic period-

• The beginnings of farming and herding
• The first animal to be tamed was the wild ancestor of the dog.
• Domestication start- The earliest domesticated animals include sheep and goat.
• These include tools that were polished to give a fine cutting edge, and mortars and pestles used for grinding grain and other plant produce.
• Mortars and pestles are used for grinding grain even today, several thousand years later.

The story of Harappa

Developed about 4700 years ago

City Structure-

• Cities were divided into two or more parts
• Usually, the part to the west was smaller but higher (known as citadel)
• Generally, the part to the east was larger but lower (Known as lower town)
• Use of baked brick
• Bricks were laid in an interlocking pattern and that made the walls strong.
• In some cities, special buildings were constructed on the citadel.
• For example,
• Mohenjodaro, a very special tank, which archaeologists call the Great Bath, was built in this area
• This was lined with bricks, coated with plaster, and made water-tight with a layer of natural tar.
• There were steps leading down to it from two sides, while there were rooms on all sides.
• Water was probably brought in from a well, and drained out after use.

Kalibangan and Lothal-

• Fire altars found which tells, sacrifices may have been performed.

Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Lothal-

• Had store houses

Houses, drains and streets-

• Generally, houses were either one or two storeys high, with rooms built around a courtyard.
• Most houses had a separate bathing area, and some had wells to supply water.
• Many of these cities had covered drains
• Each drain had a gentle slope so that water could flow through it.
• Drains in houses were connected to those on the streets and smaller drains led into bigger ones.
• Drains were covered, inspection holes were provided at intervals to clean them.
• All three — houses, drains and streets — were probably planned and built at the same time.

Life in the city

• Rulers planned the construction of special buildings in the city.
• Rulers sent people to distant lands to get metal, precious stones, and other things that they wanted.
• They may have kept the most valuable objects, such as ornaments of gold and silver, or beautiful beads, for themselves.
• And there were scribes, people who knew how to write, who helped prepare the seals, and perhaps wrote on other materials that have not survived.
• Besides, there were men and women, crafts persons, making all kinds of things — either in their own homes, or in special workshops.
• People were travelling to distant lands or returning with raw materials and, perhaps, stories.
• Many terracotta toys have been found and children must have played with these.

Harappan Seal-

• The signs on the top of the seal are part of a script.
• This is the earliest form of writing known in the subcontinent.
• Scholars have tried to read these signs but we still do not know exactly what they mean.

New crafts in the city

• Made of stone, shell and metal, including copper, bronze, gold and silver.
• Copper and bronze were used to make tools, weapons, ornaments and vessels.
• Gold and silver were used to make ornaments and vessels.
• Stone weights- precisely shaped; made of chert, a kind of stone
• Beads- made out of carnelian, a beautiful red stone.
• The stone was cut, shaped, polished and finally a hole was bored through the centre so that a string could be passed through it.

Cotton –

• Was probably grown at Mehrgarh from about 7000 years ago.
• Actual pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects at Mohenjodaro

Faience

• Unlike stone or shell, that are found naturally, faience is a material that is artificially produced.
• A gum was used to shape sand or powdered quartz into an object.
• The objects were then glazed, resulting in a shiny, glassy surface.
• The colours of the glaze were usually blue or sea green.
• Faience was used to make beads, bangles, earrings, and tiny vessels.
• A stone statue of an important man found from Mohenjodaro shows him wearing an embroidered garment.

Important Facts related to Harappa culture- 

• The Harappans probably got copper from present-day Rajasthan, and even from Oman in West Asia
• Tin, which was mixed with copper to produce bronze, may have been brought from present-day Afghanistan and Iran.
• Gold could have come all the way from present-day Karnataka, and precious stones from present-day Gujarat, Iran and Afghanistan.
• A toy plough- A new tool, the plough, was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds.
• While real ploughs, which were probably made of wood, have not survived, toy models have been found.
• Irrigation was there- This means that water was stored and supplied to the fields when the plants were growing.
• Reared cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo
• Water and pastures were available around settlements
• They also collected fruits like ber, caught fish and hunted wild animals like the antelope.

Harappan towns in Gujarat

Dholavira-

• Located on Khadir Beyt (also spelled as Bet) in the Rann of Kutch
• Fresh water and fertile soil
• Unlike some of the other Harappan cities, which were divided into two parts, Dholavira was divided into three parts, and each part was surrounded with massive stone walls, with entrances through gateways.
• There was also a large open area in the settlement, where public ceremonies could be held.
• Large letters of the Harappan script that were carved out of white stone-  This is a unique find as generally Harappan writing has been found on small objects such as seals.

Lothal-

• Stood beside a tributary of the Sabarmati, in Gujarat, close to the Gulf of Khambat.
• Situated near areas where raw materials such as semi-precious stones were easily available.
• Important centre for making objects out of stone, shell and metal.
• There was also a store house in the city.
• Many seals and sealings (the impression of seals on clay) were found in this storehouse.
• Dockyard- where boats and ships came in from the sea and through the river channel.
• Goods were probably loaded and unloaded here.
• A building that was found here was probably a workshop for making beads: pieces of stone, half made beads, tools for bead making, and finished beads have all been found here.

Seals and sealings-

• Seals may have been used to stamp bags or packets containing goods that were sent from one place to another.
• After a bag was closed or tied, a layer of wet clay was applied on the knot, and the seal was pressed on it.
• The impression of the seal is known as a sealing.
• If the sealing was intact, one could be sure that the goods had arrived safely.

Vedas-

Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.

Rigveda-

• The oldest Veda is the Rigveda, composed about 3500 years ago.
• Rigveda was being composed in the north-west of the subcontinent
• The Rigveda includes more than a thousand hymns, called sukta or “well-said”.
• These hymns are in praise of various gods and goddesses.
• Three gods are especially important: Agni, the god of fire; Indra, a warrior god; and Soma, a plant from which a special drink was prepared.
• These hymns were composed by sages (rishis).
• Priests taught students to recite and memorise each syllable, word, and sentence, bit by bit, with great care.
• Most of the hymns were composed, taught and learnt by men.
• A few were composed by women.
• The Rigveda is in old or Vedic Sanskrit, which is different from the Sanskrit you learn in school these days.
• The books we use are written and printed.
• The Rigveda was recited and heard rather than read.
• It was written down several centuries after it was first composed, and printed less than 200 years ago.
• Some of the hymns in the Rigveda are in the form of dialogues.
• This is part of one such hymn, a dialogue between a sage named Vishvamitra, and two rivers, (Beas and Sutlej) that were worshipped as goddesses.
• A manuscript of the Rigveda, on birch bark, was found in Kashmir.
• About 150 years ago, it was used to prepare one of the earliest printed texts of the Rigveda, as well as an English translation.
• It is now preserved in a library in Pune, Maharashtra.
• Rivers, especially the Indus and its other tributaries, and the Sarasvati, are also named in the hymns.
• The Ganga and Yamuna are named only once.

Sanskrit and other languages

• Sanskrit is part of a family of languages known as Indo-European.
• Some Indian languages such as Assamese, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri and Sindhi; Asian languages such as Persian and many European languages such as English, French, German, Greek, Italian and Spanish belong to this family.
• They are called a family because they originally had words in common.
• Take the words ‘matr’ (Sanskrit), ‘ma’ (Hindi) and ‘mother’ (English).
• Other languages used in the subcontinent belong to different families.
• For instance, those used in the north-east belong to the Tibeto-Burman family; Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam belong to the Dravidian family; and the languages spoken in Jharkhand and parts of central India belong to the Austro-Asiatic family.

Cattle, horses and chariots

• There are many prayers in the Rigveda for cattle, children (especially sons), and horses.
• Horses were yoked to chariots that were used in battles, which were fought to capture cattle.
• Battles were also fought for land, which was important for pasture, and for growing hardy crops that ripened quickly, such as barley.
• Some battles were fought for water, and to capture people.
• Some of the wealth that was obtained was kept by the leaders, some was given to the priests and the rest was distributed amongst the people.
• Some wealth was used for the performance of yajnas or sacrifices in which offerings were made into the fire.
• These were meant for gods and goddesses.
• Offerings could include ghee, grain, and in some cases, animals.
• Most men took part in these wars.
• There was no regular army, but there were assemblies where people met and discussed matters of war and peace.
• They also chose leaders, who were often brave and skilful warriors.

Words to describe people

• There are two groups who are described in terms of their work — the priests, sometimes called brahmins, who performed various rituals, and the rajas.
• Generally, sons did not automatically succeed fathers as rajas
• Jana or Vish- people or the community as a whole.
• The word Vaishya comes from vish.
• The people who composed the hymns described themselves as Aryas and called their opponents Dasas or Dasyus
• These were people who did not perform sacrifices, and probably spoke different languages.
• The term dasa (and the feminine dasi) came to mean slave. Slaves were women and men who were often captured in war.

Megaliths-

• Big Stones
• These were carefully arranged by people, and were used to mark burial sites.
• The practice of erecting megaliths began about 3000 years ago, and was prevalent throughout the Deccan, south India, in the north-east and Kashmir.
• Iron equipment found from megalithic burials.
• This type of megalith is known as a Cist.
• Some cists, like the one shown here, have port-holes which could be used as an entrance.

Ashvamedha- horse sacrifice

• A horse was let loose to wander freely and it was guarded by the raja’s men.
• If the horse wandered into the kingdoms of other rajas and they stopped it, they had to fight.
• If they allowed the horse to pass, it meant that they accepted that the raja who wanted to perform the sacrifice was stronger than them.
• These rajas were then invited to the sacrifice, which was performed by specially trained priests, who were rewarded with gifts.
• The raja who organised the sacrifice was recognised as being very powerful, and all those who came brought gifts for him.

Varnas

• Composed in north India, especially in the areas drained by the Ganga and the Yamuna, during this period
• Often called later Vedic, because they were composed after the Rigveda
• These include the Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, as well as other books.
• These were composed by priests, and described how rituals were to be performed.
• They also contained rules about society.
• The priests divided people into four groups, called varnas.
• According to them, each varna had a different set of functions.
• The first varna was that of the brahmin.  Brahmins were expected to study (and teach) the Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts.
• In the second place were the rulers, also known as kshatriyas. They were expected to fight battles and protect people.
• Third were the vish or the vaishyas.
• They were expected to be farmers, herders, and traders.
• Both the kshatriyas and the vaishyas could perform sacrifices.
• Last were the shudras, who had to serve the other three groups and could not perform any rituals. Often, women were also grouped with the shudras.
• Both women and shudras were not allowed to study the Vedas
• The priests also said that these groups were decided on the basis of birth.
• For example, if one’s father and mother were brahmins one would automatically become a brahmin, and so on.
• Later, they classified some people as untouchable.
• These included some crafts persons, hunters and gatherers, as well as people who helped perform burials and cremations.
• The priests said that contact with these groups was polluting.
• Many people did not accept the system of varna laid down by the brahmins.
• Some kings thought they were superior to the priests. Others felt that birth could not be a basis for deciding which varna people belonged to.
• Besides, some people felt that there should be no differences amongst people based on occupation.
• Others felt that everybody should be able to perform rituals. And others condemned the practice of untouchability.
• Also, there were many areas in the subcontinent, such as the north-east, where social and economic differences were not very sharp, and where the influence of the priests was limited.

Janapadas

• The rajas who performed these big sacrifices were now recognised as being rajas of Janapadas rather than janas.
• The word janapada literally means the land where the jana set its foot, and settled down.
• Archaeologists have excavated a number of settlements in these janapadas, such as Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapura near Meerut, and Atranjikhera, near Etah (the last two are in Uttar Pradesh).
• They found that people lived in huts, and kept cattle as well as other animals.
• They also grew a variety of crops — rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame and mustard.
• They made earthen pots. Some of these were grey in colour, others were red.
• One special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware.
• These grey pots had painted designs, usually simple lines and geometric patterns. 

Painted Grey Ware

• Plates and bowls are the most common vessels made out of Painted Grey Ware.
• These are extremely fine to touch, with a nice, smooth surface.
• Perhaps these were used on special occasions, for important people, and to serve special food.

Mahajanapadas

• About 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others, and were known as Mahajanapadas.
• Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified.
• This means that huge walls of wood, brick or stone were built around them.
• Forts were probably built because people were afraid of attacks from other kings and needed protection.
• It is also likely that some rulers wanted to show how rich and powerful they were by building really large, tall and impressive walls around their cities.
• Also in this way, the land and the people living inside the fortified area could be controlled more easily by the king.
• Building such huge walls required a great deal of planning.
• Thousands, if not lakhs of bricks or stones had to be prepared.
• This in turn meant enormous labour, provided, possibly, by thousands of men, women and children.
• And resources had to be found for all of this.
• The fortification wall at Kaushambi.
• This is a picture of remains of a wall made of brick, found near present-day Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh).
• A part of it was probably built about 2500 years ago.
• The new rajas now began maintaining armies.
• Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintained by the king throughout the year.
• Some payments were probably made using punch marked coins

Taxes

• As the rulers of the mahajanapadas were
• Building huge forts
• Maintaining big armies,
• They needed more resources.
• And they needed officials to collect these.
• So, instead of depending on occasional gifts brought by people, as in the case of the raja of the janapadas, they started collecting regular taxes.
• Taxes on crops were the most important. This was because most people were farmers.
• Usually, the tax was fixed at 1/6th of what was produced. This was known as bhaga or a share.
• There were taxes on crafts persons as well. These could have been in the form of labour.
• For example, a weaver or a smith may have had to work for a day every month for the king.
• Herders were also expected to pay taxes in the form of animals and animal produce.
• There were also taxes on goods that were bought and sold, through trade.
• And hunters and gatherers also had to provide forest produce to the raja.

Changes in agriculture

• There were two major changes in agriculture around this time.
• One was the growing use of iron ploughshares. This meant that heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better than with a wooden ploughshare, so that more grain could be produced.
• Second, people began transplanting paddy. This meant that instead of scattering seed on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields. This led to increased production, as many more plants survived.
• Generally, slave men and women, (dasas and dasis) and landless agricultural labourers (kammakaras) had to do this work.

CHAPTER 8
ASHOKA, THE EMPEROR WHO GAVE UP WAR

A very big kingdom= an empire

• Ashoka- greatest rulers
• Instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces
• Why his kingdom was called an empire?
• The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago.
• Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya.
• Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra.

Dynasty

• When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty.
• The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.

• Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India.
• People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages.
• How are empires different from kingdoms?
• Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies.
• So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes.

Ruling the empire-

• The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor.
• This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, crafts persons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area.
• Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders.
• Many of these officials were given salaries.
• Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials.
• And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers.
• Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain.
• Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed.
• Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute.
• For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones.
• It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute.

Tribute

• Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly.
• There were also the forested regions.
• People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials.

The emperor and the capital city

Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator.

Here is a part of his description:

• “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin.
• His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver.
• Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor.
• The king is normally surrounded by armed women.
• He is afraid that someone may try to kill him.
• He has special servants to taste the food before he eats.
• He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.”

And about Pataliputra (modern Patna) he wrote:

“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.”

Ashoka, a unique ruler

• He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions.
• Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script.

Ashoka’s war in Kalinga

• Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa
• Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga.
• However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars.
• He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war.

Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war

• This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions:
• “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga.
• About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed.
• This filled me with sorrow.

Why?

• Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die.
• People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones.
• That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well.
• I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force.
• I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war.
• Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.”
• (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’).

What was Ashoka’s dhamma?

• Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice.
• He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects.
• He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha
• There were a number of problems that troubled him.
• People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict.
• Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated.
• Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours.
• Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems.
• So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma.
• Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves.
• Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece and Sri Lanka.
• He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses.
• Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals.

The Rampurwa bull

• Finely polished stone sculpture.
• This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan.
• It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.

Iron tools and agriculture

• The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago.
• Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials

Other steps to increase production: irrigation

• While new tools and the system of transplantation increased production, irrigation was also used.
• Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.

Who lived in the villages?

• In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai.
• In the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka.
• Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary.
• The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner.
• Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land.
• Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village.
• He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman.
• Apart from the gramabhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners.
• And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others.

The earliest Tamil compositions

• Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago.
• These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai
• The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature.

Finding out about cities

• Ring well found in Delhi.
• Jatakas- These were stories that were probably composed by ordinary people, and then written down and preserved by Buddhist monks.
• Sculptors carved scenes depicting peoples’ lives in towns and villages, as well as in the forest.
• Many of these sculptures were used to decorate railings, pillars and gateways of buildings that were visited by people.
• Many of the cities that developed from about 2500 years ago were capitals of the mahajanapadas
• Some of these cities were surrounded by massive fortification walls
• In many cities, archaeologists have found rows of pots, or ceramic rings arranged one on top of the other. These are known as ring wells.
• These seem to have been used as toilets in some cases, and as drains and garbage dumps.
• These ring wells are usually found in individual houses.
• We have hardly any remains of palaces, markets, or of homes of ordinary people.
• Perhaps some are yet to be discovered by archaeologists.
• Others, made of wood, mud brick and thatch, may not have survived.
• Another way of finding out about early cities is from the accounts of sailors and travellers who visited them.
• One of the most detailed accounts that has been found was by an unknown Greek sailor.
• He described all the ports he visited.

Punch-marked Coins

• Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body).
• The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches.
• Hence, they are called punch-marked coins.
• These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE.

Cities with many functions

Mathura-

• An important settlement for more than 2500 years.
• Important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south.
• There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines.
• Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for people in the city.
• Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced.
• Around 2000 years ago Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas
• Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna.
• Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura.
• Inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers.

Pottery- Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)

• It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent.
• NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface.
• The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface.
• A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine.

Manufacture of cloth in cities like-

• Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south.
• Both men and women worked in these centres
• Many crafts persons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis.
• These shrenis of crafts persons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product.
• Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade.
• Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money.
• This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries.

Arikamedu City

• Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands.
• A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, was found at the site.
• Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy.
• This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould.
• There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used.
• Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site.
• Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth.
• There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass.

• South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones.
• Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold.
• So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans.
• There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India.
• Traders explored several sea routes.
• Some of these followed the coasts.
• There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly.
• So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon.
• And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys.

New kingdoms along the coasts

• The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys.
• Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile.
• Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful.
• Sangam poems mention the muvendar.
• This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago.
• Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast.
• Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas.
• The chiefs did not collect regular taxes.
• Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people.
• They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas.
• They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets.
• Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often rewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth.
• Around 200 years later a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India
• The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni.
• An inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri.
• He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region.
• He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts.

The story of the Silk Route

• The rich, glossy colours of silk, as well as its smooth texture, make it a highly valued fabric in most societies.
• Making silk is a complicated process.
• Raw silk has to be extracted from the cocoons of silk worms, spun into thread and then woven into cloth.
• Techniques of making silk were first invented in China around 7000 years ago.
• While the methods remained a closely guarded secret for thousands of years, some people from China who went to distant lands on foot, horseback, and on camels, carried silk with them.
• The paths they followed came to be known as the Silk Route.
• Sometimes, Chinese rulers sent gifts of silk to rulers in Iran and west Asia, and from there, the knowledge of silk spread further west.
• About 2000 years ago, wearing silk became the fashion amongst rulers and rich people in Rome.
• It was very expensive, as it had to be brought all the way from China, along dangerous roads, through mountains and deserts.
• People living along the route often demanded payments for allowing traders to pass through.
• Some kings tried to control large portions of the route.
• This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route.
• In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers.
• The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago.
• Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura.
• Taxila was also included in their kingdom.
• During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire.
• The Kushanas were amongst the earliest rulers of the subcontinent to issue gold coins.
• These were used by traders along the Silk Route.

The spread of Buddhism

• The most famous Kushana ruler was Kanishka, who ruled around 1900 years ago.
• He organised a Buddhist council, where scholars met and discussed important matters.
• Ashvaghosha, a poet who composed a biography of the Buddha, the Buddhacharita, lived in his court.
• Ashvaghosha and other Buddhist scholars now began writing in Sanskrit.
• A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed.
• This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs.
• For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree.
• Now, statues of the Buddha were made.
• Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila.
• The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas.
• These were supposed to be persons who had attained enlightenment.
• Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace.
• However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people.
• The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan.
• Buddhism also spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for monks to live in.
• Some of these caves were made on the orders of kings and queens, others by merchants and farmers.
• These were often located near passes through the Western Ghats.
• Roads connecting prosperous ports on the coast with cities in the Deccan ran through these passes.
• Traders probably halted in these cave monasteries during their travels.
• Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia.
• The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas.

An image of the Buddha from Mathura.

An image of the Buddha from Taxila.

Samudragupta-

• The king who played the veena.
• He led an expedition to western India, where he overcame the last of the Shakas.
• According to later belief, his court was full of learned people, including Kalidasa the poet, and Aryabhata the astronomer
• Details about him are inscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad
• It was composed as a Kavya by Harishena, who was a poet and a minister at the court of Samudragupta
• This inscription is of a special kind known as a prashasti, a Sanskrit word, meaning ‘in praise of’. While prashastis were composed for some of the rulers

Samudragupta’s prashasti

• The poet praised the king in glowing terms — as a warrior, as a king who won victories in battle, who was learned and the best of poets.
• He is also described as equal to the gods.
• The prashasti was composed in very long sentences
• Harishena describes four different kinds of rulers, and tells us about Samudragupta’s policies towards them.
• The rulers of Aryavarta, the area shaded in green on the map. Here there were nine rulers who were uprooted, and their kingdoms were made a part of Samudragupta’s empire.
• The rulers of Dakshinapatha. Here there were twelve rulers, some of whose capitals are marked with red dots on the map.
• They surrendered to Samudragupta after being defeated and he then allowed them to rule again.
• The inner circle of neighbouring states, including Assam, coastal Bengal, Nepal, and a number of gana sanghas in the northwest, marked in purple on the map.
• They brought tribute, followed his orders, and attended his court.
• The rulers of the outlying areas, marked in blue on the map, perhaps the descendants of the Kushanas and Shakas, and the ruler of Sri Lanka, who submitted to him and offered daughters in marriage.

CHAPTER 12
BUILDINGS, PAINTINGS AND BOOKS

The Iron pillar-

• The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi, is a remarkable example of the skill of Indian crafts persons.
• It is made of iron, 7.2. m high, and weighs over 3 tonnes.
• It was made about 1500 years ago.
• There is an inscription on the pillar mentioning a ruler named Chandra, who probably belonged to the Gupta dynasty
• The pillar has not rusted in all these years

Buildings in brick and stone

• The skills of our crafts persons are also apparent in the buildings that have survived, such as stupas.
• The word stupa means a mound.
• While there are several kinds of stupas, round and tall, big and small, these have certain common features.
• Generally, there is a small box placed at the centre or heart of the stupa.
• This may contain bodily remains (such as teeth, bone or ashes) of the Buddha or his followers, or things they used, as well as precious stones, and coins.
• This box, known as a relic casket, was covered with earth.
• Later, a layer of mud brick or baked brick was added on top.
• And then, the dome like structure was sometimes covered with carved stone slabs.
• Often, a path, known as the pradakshina patha, was laid around the stupa.
• This was surrounded with railings.
• Entrance to the path was through gateways.
• Devotees walked around the stupa, in a clockwise direction, as a mark of devotion.
• Both railings and gateways were often decorated with sculpture.

Amaravati-

• This was a place where a magnificent stupa once existed.
• Many of the stone carvings for decorating the stupa were made about 2000 years ago.
• Other buildings were hollowed out of rock to make artificial caves.
• Some of these were very elaborately decorated with sculptures and painted walls.
• Some of the earliest Hindu temples were also built at this time.
• Deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Durga were worshipped in these shrines.
• The most important part of the temple was the room known as the garbhagriha, where the image of the chief deity was placed.
• It was here that priests performed religious rituals, and devotees offered worship to the deity.

The Great Stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh-

• Stupas like this one were built over several centuries.
• While the brick mound probably dates to the time of Ashoka, the railings and gateways were added during the time of later rulers

Monolithic temples at Mahabalipuram-

• Each of these was carved out of a huge, single piece of stone (that is why they are known as monoliths).
• While brick structures are built up by adding layers of bricks from the bottom upwards, in this case the stone cutters had to work from top downwards.

An early temple at Bhitargaon, Uttar Pradesh-

• This was built about 1500 years ago, and was made of baked brick and stone.
• Often, as at Bhitargaon, a tower, known as the shikhara, was built on top of the garbhagriha, to mark this out as a sacred place.
• Building shikharas required careful planning. Most temples also had a space known as the mandapa.
• It was a hall where people could assemble.
• The Durga temple at Aihole, built about 1400 years ago.

How were stupas and temples built?

• There were several stages in building a stupa or a temple.
• Usually, kings or queens decided to build these as it was an expensive affair.
• First, good quality stone had to be found, quarried, and transported to the place that was often carefully chosen for the new building.
• Here, these rough blocks of stone had to be shaped and carved into pillars, and panels for walls, floors and ceilings.
• And then these had to be placed in precisely the right position.
• Kings and queens probably spent money from their treasury to pay the crafts persons who worked to build these splendid structures.
• Besides, when devotees came to visit the temple or the stupa, they often brought gifts, which were used to decorate the buildings.
• For example, an association of ivory workers paid for one of the beautiful gateways at Sanchi.
• Among the others who paid for decorations were merchants, farmers, garland makers, perfumers, smiths, and hundreds of men and women who are known only by their names which were inscribed on pillars, railings and walls.
• So when you get a chance to visit any of these buildings, remember how several hundreds of people probably worked to construct and decorate them.

Painting Find Ajanta-

• This is a place where several caves were hollowed out of the hills over centuries.
• Most of these were monasteries for Buddhist monks, and some of them were decorated with paintings. 
• As the caves are dark inside, most of these paintings were done in the light of torches.
• The colours, which are vivid even after 1500 years, were made of plants and minerals.
• The artists who created these splendid works of art remain unknown.

The world of books

• Epics are grand, long compositions, about heroic men and women, and include stories about gods.
• A famous Tamil epic, the Silappadikaram, was composed by a poet named Ilango, around 1800 years ago.
• It is the story of a merchant named Kovalan, who lived in Puhar and fell in love with a courtesan named Madhavi, neglecting his wife Kannagi.
• Later, he and Kannagi left Puhar and went to Madurai, where he was wrongly accused of theft by the court jeweller of the Pandya king.
• The king sentenced Kovalan to death.
• Kannagi, who still loved him, was full of grief and anger at this injustice, and destroyed the entire city of Madurai.
• Another Tamil epic, the Manimekalai was composed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago.
• This describes the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi.
• These beautiful compositions were lost to scholars for many centuries, till their manuscripts were rediscovered, about a hundred years ago.
• Other writers, such as Kalidasa, wrote in Sanskrit.

Recording and preserving old stories

• Purana literally mean old. The Puranas contain stories about gods and goddesses, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Durga or Parvati. They also contain details on how they were to be worshipped. Besides, there are accounts about the creation of the world, and about kings.
• The Puranas were written in simple Sanskrit verse, and were meant to be heard by everybody, including women and shudras, who were not allowed to study the Vedas.
• They were probably recited in temples by priests, and people came to listen to them.
• Two Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana had been popular for a very long time.
• The Mahabharata is about a war fought between the Kauravas and Pandavas, who were cousins.
• This was a war to gain control of the throne of the Kurus, and their capital, Hastinapura.
• The story itself was an old one, but was written down in the form in which we know it today, about 1500 years ago.
• Both the Puranas and the Mahabharata are supposed to have been compiled by Vyasa.
• The Bhagavad Gita was also included in the Mahabharata.
• The Ramayana is about Rama, a prince of Kosala, who was sent into exile.
• His wife Sita was abducted by the king of Lanka, named Ravana, and Rama had to fight a battle to get her back.
• He won and returned to Ayodhya, the capital of Kosala, after his victory.
• Like the Mahabharata, this was an old story that was now written down.
• Valmiki is recognised as the author of the Sanskrit Ramayana.

Stories told by ordinary people

• Ordinary people also told stories, composed poems and songs, sang, danced, and performed plays.
• Some of these are preserved in collections of stories such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra, which were written down around this time.
• Stories from the Jatakas were often shown on the railings of stupas and in paintings in places such as Ajanta.

Writing books on science

• This was also the time when Aryabhata, a mathematician and astronomer, wrote a book in Sanskrit known as the Aryabhatiyam.
• He stated that day and night were caused by the rotation of the earth on its axis, even though it seems as if the sun is rising and setting everyday.
• He developed a scientific explanation for eclipses as well.
• He also found a way of calculating the circumference of a circle, which is nearly as accurate as the formula we use today.
• Varahamihira, Brahmagupta and Bhaskaracharya were some other mathematicians and astronomers who made several discoveries.

Zero

• While numerals had been used earlier, mathematicians in India now invented a special symbol for zero.
• This system of counting was adapted by the Arabs and then spread to Europe.
• It continues to be in use throughout the world.
• The Romans used a system of counting without using zero.

Ayurveda

• Ayurveda is a well-known system of health science that was developed in Ancient India.
• The two famous practitioners of Ayurveda in ancient India were Charaka (1st-2nd centuries C.E.) and Sushruta (c. 4th century C.E.)
• Charak Samhita, written by Charak is a remarkable book on medicine.
• In his treatise, Susruta Samhita, Sushruta speaks about elaborate surgical procedures.

About Paper-

• Paper was invented in China about 1900 years ago, by a man named Cai Lun.
• He beat plant fibres, cloth, rope and the bark of trees, soaked these in water, and then pressed, drained and dried the pulp to create paper.
• Even today, handmade paper is made through a similar process.
• It reached Korea about 1400 years ago, and spread to Japan soon after.
• It was known in Baghdad about 1800 years ago.
• From Baghdad it spread to Europe, Africa, and other parts of Asia including the subcontinent.

SOME IMPORTANT DATES

• Beginning of stupa building (2300 years ago)
• Amaravati (2000 years ago)
• Kalidasa (1600 years ago)
• Iron pillar, Temple at Bhitargaon, Paintings at Ajanta, Aryabhata (1500 years ago)
• Durga temple (1400 years ago)