Chapter- 1
Resources

Chapter- 2
Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources

SOIL

DEGRADATION OF SOIL AND CONSERVATION MEASURES-

Factors which lead to soil degradation are deforestation, overgrazing, overuse of chemical fertilizers or pesticides, rain wash, landslides and floods.

Some methods of soil conservation are-

• Mulching: The bare ground between plants is covered with a layer of organic matter like straw. It helps to retain soil moisture.
• Contour barriers: Stones, grass, soil are used to build barriers along contours. Trenches are made in front of the barriers to collect water.
• Rock dam: Rocks are piled up to slow down the flow of water. This prevents gullies and further soil loss.
• Terrace farming: These are made on the steep slopes so that flat surfaces are available to grow crops. They can reduce surface run-off and soil erosion
• Intercropping: Different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at different times to protect the soil from rain wash.
• Contour ploughing: Ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill slope to form a natural barrier for water to flow down the slope
• Shelter belts: In the coastal and dry regions, rows of trees are planted to check the wind movement to protect soil cover

CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between governments.

• It aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.

NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE

• Forests are broadly classified as evergreen and deciduous depending on when they shed their leaves
• The animals are poached for collection and illegal trade of hides, skins, nails, teeth, horns as well as feathers.
• Some of these animals are tiger, lion, elephant, deer, black buck, crocodile, rhinoceros, snow leopard, ostrich and peacock.
• Conservation by generating awareness through programmes like Vanamohatasava, international convention CITES

Chapter- 3
Mineral and Power Resources

• The process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the earth’s surface is called mining.
• Minerals that lie at shallow depths are taken out by removing the surface layer; this is known as open-cast mining.
• Deep bores, called shafts, have to be made to reach mineral deposits that lie at great depths. This is called shaft mining.
• Petroleum and natural gas occur far below the earth’s surface. Deep wells are bored to take them out, this is called drilling
• Minerals that lie near the surface are simply dug out, by the process known as quarrying.

Conventional Sources of Energy

Coal-

• The leading coal producers of the world are China, USA, Germany, Russia, South Africa and France.
• The coal producing areas of India are Raniganj, Jharia, Dhanbad and Bokaro in Jharkhand.

Petroleum-

• It is found between the layers of rocks and is drilled from oil fields located in off-shore and coastal areas.
• The chief petroleum producing countries are Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Qatar.
• The other major producers are USA, Russia, Venezuela, and Algeria.
• The leading producers in India are Digboi in Assam, Bombay High in Mumbai and the deltas of Krishna and Godavari rivers.

Natural Gas-

• Russia, Norway, UK and the Netherlands are the major producers of natural gas.
• In India Jaisalmer, Krishna Godavari delta, Tripura and some areas off shore in Mumbai have natural gas resources.

Hydel Power-

• One fourth of the world’s electricity is produced by hydel power.
• The leading producers of hydel power in the world are Paraguay, Norway, Brazil, and China.
• Some important hydel power stations in India are Bhakra Nangal, Gandhi Sagar, Nagarjunasagar and Damodar valley projects.

NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

Wind Energy-

Windfarms are found in Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, UK, USA and Spain are noted for their wind energy production.

Nuclear Power-

• The greatest producers of nuclear power are USA and Europe.
• In India Rajasthan and Jharkhand have large deposits of Uranium.
• Thorium is found in large quantities in the Monozite sands of Kerala.
• The nuclear power stations in India are located in Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu, Tarapur in Maharashtra, Ranapratap Sagar near Kota in Rajasthan, Narora in Uttar Pradesh and Kaiga in Karnataka

Geothermal Energy-

• USA has the world’s largest geothermal power plants followed by New Zealand, Iceland, Philippines and Central America.
• In India, geothermal plants are located in Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh and Puga Valley in Ladakh

TIDAL ENERGY-

Russia, France and the Gulf of Kachchh in India have huge tidal mill farms

DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS

DISTRIBUTION IN INDIA

• Iron: India has deposits of high grade iron ore. The mineral is found mainly in Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra and Karnataka.
• Bauxite: Major bauxite producing areas are Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu
• Mica: Mica deposits mainly occur in Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan. India is the largest producer and exporter of mica in the world.
• Copper: It is mainly produced in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
• Manganese: India’s manganese deposits lie in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
• Limestone: Major limestone producing states in India are Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
• Gold: Kolar in Karnataka has deposits of gold in India. These mines are among the deepest in the world which makes mining of this ore a very expensive process.
• Salt: It is obtained from seas, lakes and rocks. India is one of the world’s leading producers and exporters of salt

ASIA

• China and India have large iron ore deposits.
• The continent produces more than half of the world’s tin.
• China, Malaysia and Indonesia are among the world’s leading tin producers.
• China also leads in production of lead, antimony and tungsten.
• Asia also has deposits of manganese, bauxite, nickel, zinc and copper.

EUROPE

• Europe is the leading producer of iron-ore in the world.
• The countries with large deposits of iron ore are Russia, Ukraine, Sweden and France.
• Minerals deposits of copper, lead, zinc, manganese and nickel are found in Eastern Europe and European Russia.
• Switzerland has no known mineral deposit in it.

NORTH AMERICA

• The mineral deposits in North America are located in three zones: the Canadian region north of the Great Lakes, the Appalachian region and the mountain ranges of the west.
• Iron ore, nickel, gold, uranium and copper are mined in the Canadian Shield Region, coal in the Appalachians region.
• Western Cordilleras have vast deposits of copper, lead, zinc, gold and silver.

SOUTH AMERICA

• Brazil is the largest producer of high grade iron-ore in the world.
• Chile and Peru are leading producers of copper.
• Brazil and Bolivia are among the world’s largest producers of tin.
• South America also has large deposits of gold, silver, zinc, chromium, manganese, bauxite, mica, platinum, asbestos and diamond.
• Mineral oil is found in Venezuela, Argentina, Chile, Peru and Columbia

AFRICA

• It is the world’s largest producer of diamonds, gold and platinum.
• South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zaire produce a large portion of the world’s gold.
• The other minerals found in Africa are copper, iron ore, chromium, uranium, cobalt and bauxite.
• Oil is found in Nigeria, Libya and Angola.

AUSTRALIA

• largest producer of bauxite
• It is a leading producer of gold, diamond, iron ore, tin and nickel.
• It is also rich in copper, lead, zinc and manganese.
• Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie areas of Western Australia have largest deposits of gold.

ANTARCTICA

• The geology of Antarctica is sufficiently well known to predict the existence of a variety of mineral deposits, some probably large.
• Significant size of deposits of coal in the Transantarctic Mountains and iron near the Prince Charles Mountains of East Antarctica is forecasted.
• Iron ore, gold, silver and oil are also present in commercial quantities.

Chapter- 4
Agriculture

Types OF Farming

A. Subsistence Farming

• This type of farming is practised to meet the needs of the farmer’s family.
• Traditionally, low levels of technology and household labour are used to produce on small output.
• Subsistence farming can be further classified as intensive subsistence and primitive subsistence farming.
• In intensive subsistence agriculture the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour.
• Intensive subsistence agriculture is prevalent in the thickly populated areas of the monsoon regions of south, southeast and east Asia.
• Primitive subsistence agriculture includes shifting cultivation and nomadic herding.
• Shifting cultivation is practised in the thickly forested areas of Amazon basin, tropical Africa, parts of Southeast Asia and Northeast India.
• These are the areas of heavy rainfall and quick regeneration of vegetation.
• Nomadic herding is practised in the semi-arid and arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India, like Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir.

• Jhumming - North-East India
• Milpa -Mexico
• Roca - Brazil
• Ladang - Malaysia

B. Commercial Farming-

WATER

• Fresh water accounts for only about 2.7 per cent.
• Nearly 70 per cent of this occurs as ice sheets and glaciers in Antarctica, Greenland and mountain regions.
• Due to their location they are inaccessible. Only 1 per cent of freshwater is available and fit for human use.

Water Conservation-

• Water pollution can be controlled by treating these effluents suitably before releasing them in water bodies.
• Forest and other vegetation cover slow the surface runoff and replenish underground water.
• Water harvesting is another method to save surface runoff.

Agriculture

The science and art of cultivation on the soil, raising crops and rearing livestock. It is also called farming.

Sericulture

Commercial rearing of silk worms. It may supplement the income of the farmer

Pisciculture

Breeding of fish in specially constructed tanks and ponds

Viticulture

Cultivation of grapes

Horticulture

Growing vegetables, flowers and fruits for commercial use.

Major Crops

Rice-

• Rice is the major food crop of the world.
• It is the staple diet of the tropical and sub-tropical regions.
• Rice needs high temperature, high humidity and rainfall.
• It grows best in alluvial clayey soil, which can retain water.
• China leads in the production of rice followed by India, Japan, Sri Lanka and Egypt.
• In favorable climatic conditions as in West Bengal and Bangladesh two to three crops are grown in a year.

Wheat-

• Wheat requires moderate temperature and rainfall during growing season and bright sunshine at the time of harvest.
• It thrives best in well drained loamy soil.
• Wheat is grown extensively in USA, Canada, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, Australia and India.
• In India it is grown in winter.

Millets-

• They are also known as coarse grains and can be grown on less fertile and sandy soils.
• It is a hardy crop that needs low rainfall and high to moderate temperature and adequate rainfall.
• Jowar, bajra and ragi are grown in India.
• Other countries are Nigeria, China and Niger.

Chapter- 5
Industries

Classification of Industries-

Raw Materials based-

1. Agro based industries
2. Mineral based industries
3. Marine based industries
4. Forest based industries

Size-

Small scale and large scale industries

Ownership-

• Private sector industries
• Joint sector industries
• Co-operative sector

Factors Affecting Location of Industries

• Major industrial regions of the world are eastern North America, western and central Europe, eastern Europe and eastern Asia
• Major industrial regions tend to be located in the temperate areas, near sea ports and especially near coal fields.
• India has several industrial regions like Mumbai- Pune cluster, Bangalore-Tamil Nadu region, Hugli region, Ahmedabad-Baroda region, Chotanagpur industrial belt, Vishakhapatnam-Guntur belt, Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut region and the Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram industrial cluster.

Distribution Of Major Industries

Iron and Steel Industry-

• Germany, USA, China, Japan and Russia.
• The major hubs of Information technology industry are the Silicon valley of Central California and the Bangalore region of India.
• This is a feeder industry whose products are used as raw material for other industries.
• The inputs for the industry include raw materials such as iron ore, coal and limestone, along with labour, capital, site and other infrastructure.
• Before 1800 A.D. iron and steel industry was located where raw materials, power supply and running water were easily available.
• Later the ideal location for the industry was near coal fields and close to canals and railways.
• After 1950, iron and steel industry began to be located on large areas of flat land near sea ports.
• This is because by this time steel works had become very large and iron ore had to be imported from overseas

• In India, iron and steel industry has developed taking advantage of raw materials, cheap labour, transport and market.
• All the important steel producing centres such as Bhilai, Durgapur, Burnpur, Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro are situated in a region that spreads over four states — West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh.
• Bhadravati and Vijay Nagar in Karnataka, Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, Salem in Tamil Nadu are other important steel centres utilising local resources.

Cotton Textile Industry-

• The textile industry can be divided on the basis of raw materials used in them.
• Natural fibres are obtained from wool, silk, cotton, linen and jute.
• Manmade fibres include nylon, polyester, acrylic and rayon.
• Till the industrial revolution in the 18th century, cotton cloth was made using hand spinning techniques (wheels) and looms.
• In 18th century power looms facilitated the development of cotton textile industry, first in Britain and later in other parts of the world.
• Today India, China, Japan and the USA are important producers of cotton textiles.
• Before the British rule, Indian hand spun and hand woven cloth already had a wide market.
• The Muslins of Dhaka, Chintzes of Masulipatnam, Calicos of Calicut and Gold-wrought cotton of Burhanpur, Surat and Vadodara were known worldwide for their quality and design.
• Hence, traditional cotton textile industry could not face the competition from the new textile mills of the West, which produced cheap and good quality fabrics through mechanized industrial units.
• The first successful mechanized textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854.
• The warm, moist climate, a port for importing machinery, availability of raw material and skilled labour resulted in rapid expansion of the industry in the region.
• Initially this industry flourished in the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat because of favourable humid climate.
• But today, humidity can be created artificially, and raw cotton is a pure and not weight losing raw material, so this industry has spread to other parts of India.
• Coimbatore, Kanpur, Chennai, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Kolkata, Ludhiana, Puducherry and Panipat are some of the other important centres

Information Technology-

• The major hubs of the IT industry are the Silicon Valley, California and Bengaluru, India.
• Bengaluru is located on the Deccan Plateau from where it gets the name ‘Silicon Plateau’.
• The city is known for its mild climate throughout the year.
• Silicon Valley is a part of Santa Clara Valley, located next to the Rocky Mountains of North America.
• The area has temperate climate with the temperatures rarely dropping below 0 degrees centigrade.
• The Locational advantages of the Silicon plateau, Bengaluru and Silicon Valley, California
• Other- Mumbai, New Delhi, Hyderabad and Chennai.
• Other cities such as Gurgaon, Pune, Thiruvanthapuram, Kochi and Chandigarh are also important centres of the IT industry.

Jamshedpur

• Before 1947, there was only one iron and steel plant in the country – Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO).
• It was privately owned. After Independence, the government took the initiative and set up several iron and steel plants.
• TISCO was started in 1907 at Sakchi, near the confluence of the rivers Subarnarekha and Kharkai in Jharkhand.
• Later on Sakchi was renamed as Jamshedpur.

• Geographically, Jamshedpur is the most conveniently situated iron and steel centre in the country.
• TISCO gets coal from Jharia coalfields, and iron ore, limestone, dolomite and manganese from Odisha and Chhattisgarh.
• The Kharkai and Subarnarekha rivers ensured sufficient water supply.

Pittsburgh-

• It is an important steel city of the United States of America.
• The steel industry at Pittsburgh enjoys Locational advantages.
• Some of the raw material such as coal is available locally, while the iron ore comes from the iron mines at Minnesota, about 1500 km from Pittsburgh.
• Between these mines and Pittsburgh is one of the world’s best routes for shipping more cheaply– the famous Great Lakes waterway.
• Trains carry the ore from the Great Lakes to the Pittsburgh area.
• The Ohio, the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers provide adequate water supply.
• They are located in the valleys of the Monogahela and Allegheny rivers above Pittsburgh and along the Ohio River below it.

Ahmedabad-

• It is located in Gujarat on the banks of the Sabarmati river.
• The first mill was established in 1859.
• It soon became the second largest textile city of India, after Mumbai.
• Ahmedabad was therefore often referred to as the ‘Manchester of India’.
• Favorable Locational factors were responsible for the development of the textile industry in Ahmedabad. Ahmedabad is situated very close to cotton growing area.
• This ensures easy availability of raw material. The climate is ideal for spinning and weaving.
• The flat terrain and easy availability of land is suitable for the establishment of the mills.
• The densely populated states of Gujarat and Maharashtra provide both skilled and semi-skilled Labour.
• Well-developed road and railway network permits easy transportation of textiles to different parts of the country, thus providing easy access to the market.
• Mumbai port nearby facilitates import of machinery and export of cotton textiles.
• But in the recent years, Ahmedabad textile mills have been having some problems.
• Several textile mills have closed down.
• This is primarily due to the emergence of new textile centres in the country as well as non- upgradation of machines and technology in the mills of Ahmedabad.

Osaka-

• It is an important textile centre of Japan, also known as the ‘Manchester of Japan’.
• The textile industry developed in Osaka due to several geographical factors.
• The extensive plain around Osaka ensured that land was easily available for the growth of cotton mills.
• Warm humid climate is well suited to spinning and weaving.
• The river Yodo provides sufficient water for the mills.
• Labour is easily available.
• Location of port facilitates import of raw cotton and for exporting textiles.
• The textile industry at Osaka depends completely upon imported raw materials.
• Cotton is imported from Egypt, India, China and USA.
• The finished product is mostly exported and has a good market due to good quality and low price.
• Though it is one of the important textile cities in the country, of late, the cotton textile industry of Osaka has been replaced by other industries, such as iron and steel, machinery, shipbuilding, automobiles, electrical equipment and cement.

Chapter 6
Human Resources
Distribution of Population

• The crowded areas are south and south east Asia, Europe and north eastern North America
• Many more people live north of the Equator than south of the Equator.
• Almost three-quarters of the world’s people live in two continents Asia and Africa

Density of Population

• Population density is the number of people living in a unit area of the earth’s surface.
• It is normally expressed as per square km.
• The average density of population in the whole world is 51 persons per square km.
• South Central Asia has the highest density of population followed by East and South East Asia
• Average density of population in India is 382 persons per square km

Population Change

• Births are usually measured using the birth rate i.e. the number of live births per 1,000 people.
• Deaths are usually measured using the death rate i.e. the number of deaths per 1,000 people.
• Migrations are the movement of people in and out of an area.
• Births and deaths are the natural causes of population change.
• The difference between the birth rate and the death rate of a country is called the natural growth rate.

Population Composition

Population composition refers to the structure of the population.

Kenya-

Birth and death rates both are high is broad at the base and rapidly narrows towards the top

India-

Death rates (especially amongst the very young) are decreasing; the pyramid is broad in the younger age groups, because more infants survive to adulthood.

Japan-

low birth rates make the pyramid narrow at the base

Decreased death rates allow numbers of people to reach old age.

Factors Affecting Distribution of Population

• Topography: People always prefer to live on plains rather than mountains and plateaus because these areas are suitable for farming, manufacturing and service activities. The Ganga plains are the most densely populated areas of the world while mountains like Andes, Alps and Himalayas are sparsely populated.
• Climate: People usually avoid extreme climates that are very hot or very cold like Sahara desert, Polar Regions of Russia, Canada and Antarctica.
• Soil: Fertile soils provide suitable land for agriculture.Fertile plains such as Ganga and Brahmaputra in India, Hwang-He, and Chang Jiang in China and the Nile in Egypt are densely populated.
• Water: People prefer to live in the areas where fresh water is easily available. The river valleys of the world are densely populated while deserts have spare population.
• Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits are more populated. Diamond mines of South Africa and discovery of oil in the Middle east lead to settling of people in these areas.

Social, Cultural and Economic Factors

• Social: Areas of better housing, education and health facilities are more densely populated e.g., Pune.
• Cultural: Places with religion or cultural significance attract people. Varanasi, Jerusalem and Vatican City are some examples.
• Economic: Industrial areas provide employment opportunities. Large number of people is attracted to these areas. Osaka in Japan and Mumbai in India are two densely populated areas

Patterns of Population Change

• Rates of population growth vary across the world
• Although, the world’s total population is rising rapidly, not all countries are experiencing this growth.
• Some countries like Kenya have high population growth rates.
• They had both high birth rates and death rates.
• Now, with improving health care, death rates have fallen, but birth rates still remain high leading to high growth rates.
• In other countries like United Kingdom, population growth is slowing because of both low death and low birth rates.