Chapter 1
POPULATION
Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition

2^nd most populous country after China

About Census-

• Population data are collected through Census operation held every 10 years in our country.
• 1^st population Census in India- 1872
• 1^st complete Census- 1881
• 2011- 15^th census

Distribution of Population

1. Uttar Pradesh
2. Maharashtra
3. Bihar
4. West Bengal
5. Andhra Pradesh

Density of population (2011)-

• Expressed as number of persons per unit area.
• State has high density of population – Bihar (1102)
• State has low density of population – Arunachal Pradesh (17)
• Physiological density = total population / net cultivated area.
• Agricultural density = total agricultural population / net cultivable area
• Agricultural population includes cultivators and agricultural labourers and their family members.

Growth of Population

• The change in the number of people living in a particular area between two points of time.
• Its rate is expressed in percentage.
• Population growth has two components namely; natural and induced.

1. natural growth is analyzed by assessing the crude birth and death rates,
2. induced components are explained by the volume of inward and outward movement of people in any given area

• The annual growth rate of India’ s population is 2.4%
• The growth rate of population in India over the last one century has been caused by annual birth rate and death rate and rate of migration and thereby shows different trends 

Regional Variation in Population Growth

• The States like Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Puducherry, and Goa show a low rate of growth not exceeding 20 per cent over the decade.
• Kerala registered the lowest growth rate (9.4) not only in this group of states but also in the country as a whole.
• A continuous belt of states from west to east in the north-west, north, and north central parts of the country has relatively high growth rate than the southern states.
• It is in this belt comprising Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand, the growth rate on the average remained 20-25 per cent.

Four distinct phases of growth identified-

Phase I - (1901-1921)

• Growth rate was very low,
• -ve growth rate during 1911-1921
• Both the birth rate and death rate were high keeping the rate of increase low
• Poor health and medical services, illiteracy of people at large and inefficient distribution system of food and other basic necessities were largely responsible for a high birth and death rates in this period.

Phase II: ( 1921 -1951)

• Steady population growth.
• Overall improvement in health and sanitation throughout the country brought down the mortality rate.
• At the same time better transport and communication system improved distribution system.
• The crude birth rate remained high in this period leading to higher growth rate than the previous phase.
• This is impressive at the backdrop of Great Economic Depression, 1920s and World War II.

Phase III: (1951-1981)

• Population explosion in India, caused by a rapid fall in the mortality rate but a high fertility rate of population in the country.
• The average annual growth rate was as high as 2.2 per cent.
• Developmental activities were introduced through a centralized planning process and economy started showing up ensuring the improvement of living condition of people at large.
• Consequently, there was a high natural increase and higher growth rate.
• Besides, increased international migration bringing in Tibetans, Bangladeshis, Nepalies and even people from Pakistan contributed to the high growth rate.

Phase IV: (post 1981 till present)

• Growth rate of country’s population though remained high, has started slowing down gradually
• A downward trend of crude birth rate is held responsible for such a population growth.
• This was, in turn, affected by an increase in the mean age at marriage, improved quality of life particularly education of females in the country 

Composition of Working Population

Divided into three groups, namely; main workers, marginal workers and non-workers-

1. Main Worker is a person who works for at least 183 days in a year.
2. Marginal Worker is a person who works for less than 183 days in a year
3. The proportion of workers (both main and marginal) is only 39 per cent (2001) leaving a vast majority of 61 per cent as non-workers.

Work participation rate

• The states with larger percentages of workers are Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Meghalaya.
• Among the Union Territories, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu have higher participation rate
• Because the work participation rate tends to be higher in the areas of lower levels of economic development since number of manual workers are needed to perform the subsistence or near subsistence economic activities

Occupational composition population-

• Which actually means engagement of an individual in farming, manufacturing trade, services or any kind of professional activities shows a large proportion of primary sector workers compared to secondary and tertiary sectors
• About 58.2 per cent of total working population are cultivators and agricultural laborers,
• whereas only 4.2% of workers are engaged in household industries and 
• 37.6 % are other workers including non- household industries, trade, commerce, construction and repair and other service
• The number of female workers is relatively high in primary sector

Chapter- 2
MIGRATION 
TYPES, CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

The first wave of migrants

• During colonial period (British period)---   indentured labourers were sent to Mauritius, Caribbean islands (Trinidad, Tobago and Guyana), Fiji and South Africa by British from---   Uttar Pradesh and Bihar;  to ----     Reunion Island, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Surinam by French and Dutch and by Portuguese from ----   Goa, Daman and Diu to Angola, Mozambique to work as plantation workers.
• All such migrations were covered under the time-bound contract known as GIRMIT Act (Indian Emigration Act).

The second wave of migrants

• Professionals, artisans, traders and factory workers, in search of economic opportunities to Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei and African countries, etc. and the trend still continues.
• There was a steady out flow of India’s semi-skilled and skilled labour in the wake of the oil boom in West Asia in the 1970s.
• There was also some outflow of entrepreneurs, storeowners, professionals, businessmen to Western Countries.

Third wave of migrant

• Professionals like doctors, engineers (1960s onwards), software engineers, management consultants, financial experts, media persons (1980s onwards), and others migrated to countries such as USA, Canada, UK, Australia, New Zealand and Germany, etc.
• After liberalization, in the 90s education and knowledge–based Indian emigration has made Indian Diaspora one of the most powerful diaspora as in the world.
• In all these countries, Indian diaspora has been playing an important role in the development of the respective countries.

Migration-

• Migration was recorded beginning from the first Census of India conducted in 1881.
• Data were recorded on the basis of place of birth
• First major modification was introduced in 1961 Census by bringing in two additional components viz; place of birth i.e. village or town and duration of residence (if born elsewhere).
• Further in 1971, additional information on place of last residence and duration of stay at the place of enumeration were incorporated. Information on reasons for migration were incorporated in 1981 Census and modified in consecutive Censuses.

In the Census of India migration is enumerated on two bases-

1. Place of birth, if the place of birth is different from the place of enumeration (known as life-time migrant);
2. Place of residence, if the place of last residence is different from the place of enumeration (known as migrant by place of last residence).

Streams of Migration-

1. Internal migration (within the country)-

1. rural to rural (R-R);
2. rural to urban (R-U);
3. urban to urban (U-U); and
4. Urban to rural (U-R).

The stream was dominated by female migrants.

Most of these were migrants related to marriage men predominate the rural to urban stream of inter-state migration due to economic reasons

2. International migration

(Out of the country and into the country from other countries)

Than 5 million people have migrated to India from other countries.

Bangladesh (3.0 million) followed by Pakistan (0.9 million) and Nepal (0.5 million)

3. Maharashtra occupied first place in the list with 2.3 million net in-migrants (interstate), followed by Delhi, Gujarat and Haryana.

4. On the other hand, Uttar Pradesh (-2.6 million) and Bihar (-1.7 million) were the states, which had the largest number of net out-migrants from the state

Causes of Migration-

• Push factor, these cause people to leave their place of residence or origin
• People migrate from rural to urban areas mainly due to poverty, high population pressure on the land, lack of basic infrastructural facilities like health care, education, etc.
• natural disasters such as, flood, drought, cyclonic storms, earthquake
• Pull factors, which attract the people from different places
• The rural migrants to urban areas are the better opportunities, availability of regular work and relatively higher wages.
• Better opportunities for education, better health facilities and sources of entertainment, etc.

Consequences of Migration-

1. Economic Consequences-

• A major benefit for the source region is the remittance sent by migrants.
• Remittances from the international migrants are one of the major sources of foreign exchange.
• Migration from rural areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa to the rural areas of Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh accounted for the success of their green revolution strategy for agricultural development.
• Development of slums in industrially developed states such as Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Delhi is a negative consequence

2. Demographic Consequences

• Rural urban migration is one of the important factors contributing to the population growth of cities.
• Age, sex and skill selective out migration from the rural area have adverse effect on the rural demographic structure.

3. Social Consequences

• Migrants act as agents of social change.
• The new ideas related to new technologies, family planning, girl’s education, etc. get diffused from urban to rural areas through them.
• Intermixing of people from diverse cultures.
• It has positive contribution such as evolution of composite culture and breaking through the narrow considerations and widens up the mental horizon of the people at large.
• But it also has serious negative consequences such as anonymity, which creates social vacuum and sense of dejection among individuals.
• Continued feeling of dejection may motivate people to fall in the trap of anti-social activities like crime and drug abuse

4. Environmental Consequences

• Put pressure on the existing social and physical infrastructure in the urban areas.
• This ultimately leads to unplanned growth of urban settlement and formation of slums shanty colonies.
• Apart from this, due to over –exploitation of natural resources, cities are facing the acute problem of depletion of ground water, air pollution, disposal of sewage and management of solid wastes.

5. Others

• Migration (even excluding the marriage migration) affects the status of women directly or indirectly.
• In the rural areas, male selective out migration leaving their wives behind puts extra physical as well mental pressure on the women.
• Migration of „women? either for education or employment enhances their autonomy and role in the economy but also increases their vulnerability.
• If remittances are the major benefits of migration from the point of view of the source region, the loss of human resources particularly highly skilled people is the most serious cost.
• The market for advanced skills has become truly a global market and the most dynamic industrial economies are admitting and recruiting significant proportions of the highly trained professionals from poor regions. Consequently, the existing underdevelopment in the source region gets reinforced

Chapter- 3
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

2017

Chapter- 4
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS

Human Settlement means cluster of dwellings of any type or size where human beings live

Types of Rural Settlement

• Factors and conditions responsible for having different types of rural settlements in India. These include:
• Physical features – nature of terrain, altitude, climate and availability of water
• Cultural and ethnic factors – social structure, caste and religion
• Security factors -defence against thefts and robberies.

Four types:

1. Clustered, agglomerated or nucleated,
2. Semi-clustered or fragmented,
3. Hamleted, and
4. Dispersed or isolated

1. Clustered Settlements

• The clustered rural settlement is a compact or closely built up area of houses.
• In this type of village the general living area is distinct and separated from the surrounding farms, barns and pastures.
• The closely built-up area and its intervening streets present some recognizable pattern or geometric shape, such as rectangular, radial, linear, etc.
• Such settlements are generally found in fertile alluvial plains and in the north- eastern states.
• Sometimes, people live in compact village for security or defence reasons, such as in the Bundelkhand region of central India and in Nagaland.
• In Rajasthan, scarcity of water has necessitated compact settlement for maximum utilisation of available water resources.

2. Semi-Clustered Settlements

• Result from tendency of clustering in a restricted area of dispersed settlement.
• One or more sections of the village society choose or is forced to live a little away from the main cluster or village.
• The land-owning and dominant community occupies the central part of the main village, whereas people of lower strata of society and menial workers settle on the outer flanks of the village.
• Location- Gujarat plain and some parts of Rajasthan.

3. Hamleted Settlements

• Sometimes settlement is fragmented into several units physically separated from each other bearing a common name.
• These units are locally called panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani, etc. in various parts of the country.
• This segmentation of a large village is often motivated by social and ethnic factors.
• Location- middle and lower Ganga plain, Chhattisgarh and lower valleys of the Himalayas.

4. Dispersed Settlements

• Dispersed or isolated settlement pattern in India appears in the form of isolated huts or hamlets of few huts in remote jungles, or on small hills with farms or pasture on the slopes.
• Extreme dispersion of settlement is often caused by extremely fragmented nature of the terrain and land resource base of habitable areas.
• Examples- Meghalaya, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and Kerala

Urban Settlements

Evolution of Towns in India - at the time of Indus valley civilisation, towns like Harappa and Mohenjodaro were in existence.

The following period has witnessed evolution of towns-

It continued with periodic ups and downs until the arrival of Europeans in India in the eighteenth century.

On the basis of their evolution in different periods, Indian towns may be classified as-

1. Ancient towns
2. Medieval towns, and
3. Modern towns

Ancient Towns

• There are number of towns in India having historical background spanning over 2000 years.
• Most of them developed as religious and cultural centres.
• Varanasi is one of the important towns among these.
• Prayag (Allahabad), Pataliputra (Patna), Madurai are some other examples of ancient towns in the country.

Medieval Towns

• About 100 of the existing towns have their roots in the medieval period.
• Most of them developed as headquarters of principalities and kingdoms.
• These are fort towns which came up on the ruins of ancient towns.
• Important among them are Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra and Nagpur

Modern Towns

• The British and other Europeans have developed a number of towns in India.
• Starting their foothold on coastal locations, they first developed some trading ports such as Surat, Daman, Goa, Pondicherry, etc.
• The British later consolidated their hold around three principal nodes – Mumbai (Bombay), Chennai (Madras), and Kolkata (Calcutta) – and built them in the British style.

The basic differences between rural and urban settlements are as follows

• The rural settlements derive their life support or basic economic needs from land based primary economic activities, whereas, urban settlements, depend on processing of raw materials and manufacturing of finished goods on the one hand and a variety of services on the other.
• Cities act as nodes of economic growth; provide goods and services not only to urban dwellers but also to the people of the rural settlements in their hinterlands in return for food and raw materials.
• This functional relationship between the urban and rural settlements takes place through transport and communication network.
• Rural and urban settlements differ in terms of social relationship, attitude and outlook. Rural people are less mobile and therefore, social relations among them are intimate.
• In urban areas, on the other hand, way of life is complex and fast, and social relations are formal.

Urbanization in India

• The level of urbanization is measured in terms of percentage of urban population to total population.
• The level of urbanization in India in 2001 was 28 per cent
• Enlargement of urban centres and emergence of new towns have played a significant role in the growth of urban population and urbanization in the country.
• Growth rate of urbanization has slowed down during last two decades.

Functional Classification of Towns

• On the basis of dominant or specialized functions, Indian cities and towns can be broadly classified as follows:

1. Administrative towns and cities - Towns supporting administrative headquarters of higher order are administrative towns, such as Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong, Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinagar, Jaipur Chennai, etc.

2. Industrial towns - Industries constitute prime motive force of these cities such as Mumbai, Salem, Coimbatore, Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli, Bhilai, etc.

3. Transport Cities - They may be ports primarily engaged in export and import activities such as Kandla, Kochchi, Kozhikode, Vishakhapatnam, etc. or hubs of inland transport such as Agra, Dhulia, Mughal Sarai, Itarsi, Katni, etc.

4. Commercial towns - Towns and cities specializing in trade and commerce are kept in this class. Kolkata, Saharanpur, Satna, etc. are some examples.

5. Mining towns - These towns have developed in mineral rich areas such as Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi, Ankaleshwar, Singrauli, etc.

6. Garrisson Cantonment towns- These towns emerged as garrisson towns such as Ambala, Jalandhar, Mhow, Babina, Udhampur, etc.

7. Educational towns- Starting as centres of education, some of the towns have grown into major campus towns such as Roorki, Varanasi, Aligarh, Pilani, and Allahabad etc.

8. Religious and cultural towns- Varanasi, Mathura, Amritsar, Madurai, Puri, Ajmer, Pushkar, Tirupati, Kurukshetra, Haridwar and Ujjain came to prominence due to their religious/cultural significance.

9. Tourist towns - Nainital, Mussoorie, Shimla, Pachmarhi, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Udagamandalam (Ooty), Mount Abu are some of the tourist destinations.

Chapter- 5
LAND RESOURCES AND AGRICULTURE

Land Use Categories

1. Forests: area under actual forest cover is different from area classified as forest. The latter is the area which the Government has identified and demarcated for forest growth. The land revenue records are consistent with the latter definition.

2. Land put to Non-agricultural Uses: Land under settlements (rural and urban), infrastructure (roads, canals, etc.), industries, shops, etc. are included in this category.

3. Barren and Waste lands: The land which may be classified as a wasteland such as barren hilly terrains, desert lands, ravines, etc. normally cannot be brought under cultivation with the available technology.

4. Area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands: Most of this type land is owned by the village „ Panchayat or the Government. Only a small proportion of this land is privately owned. The land owned by the village panchayat comes under „Common Property Resources?.

5. Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves(Not included is Net sown Area) : The land under orchards and fruit trees are included in this category. Much of this land is privately owned.

6. Culturable Waste-Land: Any land which is left fallow (uncultivated) for more than five years is included in this category. It can be brought under cultivation after improving it through reclamation practices.

7. Current Fallow: This is the land which is left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year.

Following is a cultural practice adopted for giving the land rest. The land recoups the lost fertility through natural processes.

8. Fallow other than Current Fallow: This is also a cultivable land which is left uncultivated for more than a year but less than five years. If the land is left uncultivated for more than five years, it would be categorised as culturable wasteland.

9. Net Area Sown: The physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested is known as net sown area.

Land-use Changes in India

• Three types of changes that an economy undergoes, which affect land-use.

1. The size of the economy

2. The composition of the economy

3. Though the contribution of the agricultural activities reduces over time, the pressure on land for agricultural activities does not decline. The reasons for continued pressure on agricultural land are:

a. In developing countries, the share of population dependent on agriculture usually declines much more slowly compared to the decline in the sector’s share in GDP.

b. The number of people that the agricultural sector has to feed is increasing day by day.

• The rate of increase is the highest in case of area under non-agricultural uses. This is due to the changing structure of Indian economy. The area under non-agricultural uses is increasing at the expense of wastelands and agricultural land.
• The increase in the share under forest, as explained before, can be accounted for by increase in the demarcated area under forest rather than an actual increase in the forest cover in the country.
• The increase in the current fallow cannot be explained from information pertaining to only two points. The trend of current fallow fluctuates a great deal over years, depending on the variability of rainfall and cropping cycles.
• The wastelands and culturable wastelands have witnessed decline over time due to the pressure on land increased, both from the agricultural and non- agricultural sectors.
• The decline in net area sown is a recent phenomenon that started in the late nineties, before which it was registering a slow increase. There are indications that most of the decline has occurred due to the increases in area under non- agricultural use.
• The decline in land under pastures and grazing lands can be explained by pressure from agricultural land. Illegal encroachment due to expansion of cultivation on common pasture lands is largely responsible for this decline

Agricultural Land Use in India

1. Lack of access to land is directly correlated with incidence of poverty in rural areas.
2. Quality of land has a direct bearing on the productivity of agriculture, which is not true for other activities.
3. In rural areas, aside from its value as a productive factor, land ownership has a social value and serves as a security for credit, natural hazards or life contingencies, and also adds to the social Status.
4. The total stock of agricultural land resources (i.e. total cultivable land can be arrived at by adding up net sown area, all fallow lands and culturable wasteland.

• The scope for bringing in additional land under net sown area in India is limited. There is, thus, an urgent need to evolve and adopt land-saving technologies.
• Such technologies can be classified under two heads – those which raise the yield of any particular crop per unit area of land and those which increase the total output per unit area of land from all crops grown over one agricultural year by increasing land-use intensity.
• The advantage of the latter kind of technology is that along with increasing output from limited land, it also increases the demand for labour significantly.
• For a land scarce but labor abundant country like India, a high cropping intensity is desirable not only for fuller utilization of land resource, but also for reducing unemployment in the rural economy.

Agricultural Development in India

Strategy of Development

• During partition about one-third of the irrigated land in undivided India went to Pakistan. This reduced the proportion of irrigated area in Independent.
• After Independence, the immediate goal of the Government was to increase food-grains production by (i) switching over from cash crops to food crops; (ii) intensification of cropping over already cultivated land; and (iii) increasing cultivated area by bringing cultivable and fallow land under plough.
• Agricultural production stagnated during late 1950s.
• To overcome this problem, Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) and Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP) were launched.
• New seed varieties of wheat (Mexico) and rice (Philippines) known as high yielding varieties (HYVs) were available for cultivation by mid-1960s.
• India took advantage of this and introduced package technology comprising HYVs, along with chemical fertilizers in irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat.
• Assured supply of soil moisture through irrigation was a basic pre-requisite for the success of this new agricultural technology.
• This strategy of agricultural development paid dividends instantly and increased the food grains production at very fast rate. This spurt of agricultural growth came to be known as „Green Revolution?.
• But green revolution was initially confined to irrigated areas only. This led to regional disparities in agricultural development in the country till the seventies, after which the technology spread to the Eastern and Central parts of the country.
• The Planning Commission of India initiated agro-climatic planning in 1988 to induce regionally balanced agricultural development in the country.
• It also emphasized the need for diversification of agriculture and harnessing of resources for development of dairy farming, poultry, horticulture, livestock rearing and aquaculture.
• Initiation of the policy of liberalization and free market economy in 1990s is likely to influence the course of development of Indian agriculture.
• Lack of development of rural infrastructure, withdrawal of subsidies and price support, and impediments in availing of the rural credits may lead to inter-regional and inter -personal disparities in rural areas.

Growth of Agricultural Output and Technology

• India ranks first in the production of pulses, tea, jute, cattle and milk. It is the second largest producer of rice, wheat, groundnut, sugarcane and vegetables.
• Expansion of irrigation has played a very crucial role in enhancing agricultural output in the country. It provided basis for introduction of modern agricultural technology such as high yielding varieties of seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and farm machinery.
• The net irrigated area in the country has increased from 20.85 to 54.66 million ha over the period 1950-51 to 2000-01.
• Consumption of chemical fertilizers in India was 91 kg which was equal to its average consumption in the world (90 kg).
• But in the irrigated areas of Punjab and Haryana the consumption of chemical fertilizers per unit area is three to four times higher than that of the national average.
• Since the high yielding varieties are highly susceptible to pests and diseases, the use of pesticides has increased significantly since 1960s.

Problems of Indian Agriculture

1. Dependence on Erratic Monsoon

• Irrigation covers only about 33 per cent of the cultivated area in India.
• Poor performance of south-west Monsoon also adversely affects the supply of canal water for irrigation.
• Even the areas receiving high annual rainfall experience considerable fluctuations.
• This makes them vulnerable to both droughts and floods.
• Drought is a common phenomenon in the low rainfall areas which may also experience occasional floods.

2. Low productivity

• The yield of the crops in the country is low in comparison to the international level.
• Per hectare output of most of the crops such as rice, wheat, cotton and oilseeds in India is much lower than that of U.S.A., Russia and Japan.
• Because of the very high pressure on the land resources, the labour productivity in Indian agriculture is also very low in comparison to international level. The vast rainfed areas of the country, particularly drylands which mostly grow coarse cereals, pulses and oilseeds have very low yields.

3. Constraints of Financial Resources and Indebtedness

4. Lack of Land Reforms

• Indian peasantry had been exploited for a long time as there had been unequal distribution of land.
• Among the three revenue systems operational during British period i.e. Mahalwari, Ryotwari and Zamindari, the last one was most exploitative for the peasants.
• Lack of implementation of land reforms has resulted in continuation of iniquitous distribution of cultivable land which is detrimental to agricultural development.

5. Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of Landholdings

• More than 60 per cent of the ownership holdings have a size smaller than one (ha).
• Average size of land holding is shrinking further under increasing population pressure.
• The land holdings are mostly fragmented. There are some states where consolidation of holding has not been carried out even once.
• The small size fragmented landholdings are uneconomic

6. Lack of Commercialization

• A large number of farmers produce crops for self-consumption.
• Most of the small and marginal farmers grow food-grains, which are meant for their own family consumption. Modernization and commercialization of agriculture have however, taken place in the irrigated areas.

7. Vast Under-employment

• There is a massive under-employment in the agricultural sector in India, particularly in the un-irrigated tracts.
• There is a seasonal unemployment ranging from 4 to 8 months. Even in the cropping season work is not available throughout, as agricultural operations are not labor intensive.

8. Degradation of Cultivable Land

• One of the serious problems that arises out of faulty strategy of irrigation and agricultural development is degradation of land resources.
• This is serious because it may lead to depletion of soil fertility. The situation is particularly alarming in irrigated areas. A large tract of agricultural land has lost its fertility due to alkalization and salinization of soils and water-logging.
• Excessive use of chemicals such as insecticides and pesticides has led to their concentration in toxic amounts in the soil profile.
• Leguminous crops have been displaced from the cropping pattern in the irrigated areas and duration of fallow has substantially reduced owing to multiple cropping. This has obliterated the process of natural fertilization such as nitrogen fixation.
• Rainfed areas in humid and semi-arid tropics also experience degradation of several types like soil erosion by water and wind erosion which are often induced by human activities.

Common Property Resources

• According to its ownership can broadly be classified under two broad heads – private land and common property resources (CPRs)
• CPRs provide fodder for the livestock and fuel for the households along with other minor forest products like fruits, nuts, fibre, medicinal plants, etc.
• CPRs also are important for women as most of the fodder and fuel collection is done by them in rural areas
• CPRs can be defined as community’s natural resource, where every member has the right of access and usage with specified obligations, without anybody having property rights over them.
• Community forests, pasture lands, village water bodies and other public spaces where a group larger than a household or family unit exercises rights of use and carries responsibility of management are examples of CPRs.

Cropping Seasons in India

Tea

• Tea is a plantation crop used as beverage. Black tea leaves are fermented whereas green tea leaves are unfermented.
• Tea leaves have rich content of caffeine and tannin.
• It is an indigenous crop of hills in northern China. It is grown over undulating topography of hilly areas and well- drained soils in humid and sub-humid tropics and sub-tropics.
• In India, tea plantation started in 1840s in Brahmaputra valley of Assam which still is a major tea growing area in the country.
• Later on, its plantation was introduced in the sub-Himalayan region of West Bengal (Darjiling, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Bihar districts).
• Tea is also cultivated on the lower slopes of Nilgiri and Cardamom hills in Western Ghats.
• India’s share in the international market of tea has declined substantially. At present, it ranks third among tea exporting countries in the world after Sri Lanka and China.
• Assam accounts for about 53.2 per cent of the total cropped area and contributes more than half of total production of tea in the country.
• West Bengal and Tamil Nadu are the other leading producers of tea.

Coffee

• Coffee is a tropical plantation crop. Its seeds are roasted, ground and are used for preparing a beverage.
• There are three varieties of coffee Arabica, Robusta and liberica.
• India mostly grows superior quality coffee, Arabica, which is in great demand in International market.
• But India produces only about 4.3 per cent coffee of the world and ranks sixth after Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia and Mexico.
• Coffee is cultivated in the highlands of Western Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Karnataka alone accounts for more than two- third of total production of coffee in the country

Chapter- 6
WATER RESOURCES

Surface Water Resources

• There are four major sources of surface water. These are rivers, lakes, ponds, and tanks.
• In the country, there are about 10,360 rivers and their tributaries longer than 1.6 km each. The mean annual flow in all the river basins in India is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km.
• Water flow in a river depends on size of its catchment area or river basin and rainfall within its catchment area.
• Much of the annual water flow in south Indian rivers like the Godavari, the Krishna, and the Kaveri has been harnessed, but it is yet to be done in the Brahmaputra and the Ganga basins.

Groundwater Resources

• The level of groundwater utilization is relatively high in the river basins lying in north-western region and parts of south India.
• The groundwater utilization is very high in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu.

Lagoons and Backwaters

• India has a vast coastline and the coast is very indented in some states. Due to this, a number of lagoons and lakes have formed.
• The States like Kerala, Orissa and West Bengal have vast surface water resources in these lagoons and lakes.
• Although, water is generally brackish in this water -bodies, it is used for fishing and irrigating certain varieties of paddy crops, coconut.

Water Demand and Utilization

• India’s water demand at present is dominated by irrigational needs.
• Agriculture accounts for most of the surface and ground water utilization, it accounts for 89 per cent of the surface water and 92 per cent of the groundwater utilization.
• While the share of industrial sector is limited to 2 per cent of the surface water utilization and 5 per cent of the ground-water,
• The share of domestic sector is higher (9 per cent) in surface water utilization as compared to groundwater.

Demand of Water for Irrigation

• In agriculture, water is mainly used for irrigation. Irrigation is needed because of Spatio-temporal variability in rainfall in the country. The large tracts of the country are deficient in rainfall and are drought prone.
• Water need of certain crops also makes irrigation necessary. Water requirement of rice, sugarcane, jute, etc. is very high which can be met only through irrigation.
• Provision of irrigation makes multiple cropping possible. It has also been found that irrigated lands have higher agricultural productivity than un-irrigated land.
• the high yielding varieties of crops need regular moisture supply, which is made possible only by a developed irrigation systems.
• In fact, this is why that green revolution strategy of agriculture development in the country has largely been successful in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.
• In Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh more than 85 per cent of their net sown area is under irrigation.
• Of the total net irrigated area 76.1 per cent in Punjab and 51.3 per cent in Haryana are irrigated through wells and tube wells. This shows that these states utilize large proportion of their ground water potential which has resulted in ground water depletion in these states.

Emerging Water Problems

• The per capita availability of water is dwindling day by day due to increase in population.
• The available water resources are also getting polluted with industrial, agricultural and domestic effluents, and this, in turn, is further limiting the availability of usable water resources.

Deterioration of Water Quality

• Water quality refers to purity of water, or water without unwanted foreign substances. Water gets polluted by foreign matters such as micro- organisms, chemicals, industrial and other wastes.
• The Ganga and the Yamuna are the two highly polluted rivers in the country  Water Conservation and Management water availability from sea/ocean, due to high cost of desalinization, is considered negligible, India has to take quick steps and make effective policies and laws, and adopt effective measures for its conservation.
• Besides developing water saving technologies and methods, attempts are also to be made to prevent the pollution.
• There is need to encourage watershed development, rainwater harvesting, water recycling and reuse, and conjunctive use of water for sustaining water supply in long run.

Recycle and Reuse of Water

• Another way through which we can improve fresh water availability is by recycle and reuse.
• Use of water of lesser quality such as reclaimed waste-water would be an attractive option for industries for cooling and fire fighting to reduce their water cost.

Watershed Management

• Watershed management basically refers to efficient management and conservation of surface and groundwater resources.
• It involves prevention of runoff and storage and recharge of groundwater through various methods like percolation tanks recharge wells, etc.
• However, in broad sense watershed management includes conservation, regeneration and judicious use of all resources – natural (like land, water, plants and animals) and human with in a watershed.
• Watershed management aims at bringing about balance between natural resources on the one hand and society on the other. The success of watershed development largely depends upon community participation
• Haryali is a watershed development project sponsored by the Central Government which aims at enabling the rural population to conserve water for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation. The Project is being executed by Gram Panchayats with people’s participation.
• Neeru- Meeru (Water and You) programme (in Andhra Pradesh) and Arvary Pani Sansad (in Alwar, Rajasthan) have taken up constructions of various water-harvesting structures such as percolation tanks, dug out ponds (Johad), check dams, etc. through people’s participation.

Rain water Harvesting

• Rain water harvesting is a method to capture and store rainwater for various uses. It is also used to recharge groundwater aquifers.
• It is a low cost and eco-friendly technique for preserving every drop of water by guiding the rain water to bore well, pits and wells.
• Rainwater harvesting increases water availability, checks the declining ground water table, improves the quality of groundwater through dilution of contaminants like fluoride and nitrates, prevents soil erosion, and flooding and arrests salt water intrusion in coastal areas if used to recharge aquifers.

Highlights of India’s National Water Policy, 2002

• The National Water Policy 2002 stipulates water allocation priorities broadly in the following order: drinking water; irrigation, hydro-power, navigation, industrial and other uses. The policy stipulates progressive new approaches to water management. Key features include:
• Irrigation and multi-purpose projects should invariably include drinking water component, wherever there is no alternative source of drinking water.
• Providing drinking water to all human beings and animals should be the first priority.
• Measures should be taken to limit and regulate the exploitation of groundwater.
• Both surface and groundwater should be regularly monitored for quality. A phased programme should be undertaken for improving water quality.
• The efficiency of utilization in all the diverse uses of water should be improved.
• Awareness of water as a scarce resource should be fostered.
• Conservation consciousness should be promoted through education, regulation, incentives and disincentives.

Prevention of Water Pollution

• The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in collaboration with State Pollution Control Boards has been monitoring water quality of national aquatic resources at 507 stations.
• The data obtained from these stations show that organic and bacterial contamination continues to be the main source of pollution in rivers. The Yamuna River is the most polluted river in the country between Delhi and Etawah.
• Groundwater pollution has occurred due to high concentrations of heavy/toxic metals, fluoride and nitrates at different parts of the country.
• The legislative provisions such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974, and Environment Protection Act 1986 have not been implemented effectively.
• The Water Cess Act, 1977, meant to reduce pollution has also made marginal impacts.
• There is a strong need to generate public awareness about importance of water and impacts of water pollution.

Chapter- 7
Minerals

Types of Mineral Resources

• On the basis of chemical and physical properties, minerals may be grouped under two main categories of metallics and non-metallics.
• Metallic minerals are the sources of metals. Iron ore, copper, gold produce metal and are included in this category.
• Metallic minerals are further divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metallic minerals.
• All those minerals which have iron content are ferrous such as iron ore itself and those which do not have iron content are non-ferrous such as copper, bauxite, etc.
• Non-metallic minerals are either organic in origin such as fossil fuels also known as mineral fuels which are derived from the buried animal and plant life such as coal and petroleum. Other types of non-metallic minerals are inorganic in origin such as mica, limestone and graphite, etc.

Agencies involved in the exploration of minerals

• In India, systematic surveying, prospecting and exploration for minerals is undertaken by the Geological Survey of India (GSI), Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC), Mineral Exploration Corporation Ltd. (MECL), National Mineral Development Corporation (NMDC), Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM), Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. (BGML), Hindustan Copper Ltd. (HCL), National Aluminum Company Ltd. (NALCO) and the Departments of Mining and Geology in various states

Distribution of Minerals in India

• Most of the metallic minerals in India occur in the peninsular plateau region in the old crystalline rocks.
• Over 97 per cent of coal reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi and Godavari.
• Petroleum reserves are located in the sedimentary basins of Assam, Gujarat and Mumbai High i.e. off-shore region in the Arabian Sea.
• New reserves have been located in the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins.
• Most of the major mineral resources occur to the east of a line linking Mangalore and Kanpur.

MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES

• A mineral is a natural substance of organic or inorganic origin with definite chemical and physical properties.
• Minerals are generally concentrated in three broad belts in India. belts are :

The North-Eastern Plateau Region

• This belt covers Chotanagpur (Jharkhand), Orissa Plateau, West Bengal and parts of Chhattisgarh
• It has variety of minerals viz. iron ore coal, manganese, bauxite etc.

The South-Western Plateau Region

• This belt extends over Karnataka, Goa and contiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and Kerala. This belt is rich in ferrous metals and bauxite.
• It also contains high grade iron ore, manganese and limestone.
• This belt packs in coal deposits except Neyveli lignite.
• This belt does not have as diversified mineral deposits as the north-eastern belt.
• Kerala has deposits of monazite and thorium, bauxite clay. Goa has iron ore deposits.

The North-Western Region

• This belt extends along Aravalli in Rajasthan and part of Gujarat and minerals are associated with Dharwar system of rocks.
• Copper, zinc has been major minerals.
• Rajasthan is rich in building stones i.e. sandstone, granite, marble.
• Gypsum and Fuller’s earth deposits are also extensive.
• Dolomite and limestone provide raw materials for cement industry. Gujarat is known for its petroleum deposits

Natural Gas

• The Gas Authority of India Limited was set up in 1984 as a public sector undertaking to transport and market natural gas.
• It is obtained along with oil in all the oil fields but exclusive reserves have been located along the eastern coast as well as (Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh), Tripura, Rajasthan and off-shore wells in Gujarat and Maharashtra

Non-Conventional Energy Sources

Renewable energy sources like solar, wind, hydro- geothermal and biomass.

Nuclear Energy Resources

• Used for the generation of nuclear energy are uranium (Dharwar rocks) and thorium.
• Geographically, uranium ores are known to occur in several locations along the Singbhum Copper belt. It is also found in Udaipur, Alwar and Jhunjhunu districts of Rajasthan, Durg district of Chhattisgarh, Bhandara district of Maharashtra and Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh.
• Thorium is mainly obtained from monazite and ilmenite in the beach sands along the coast of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
• World’s richest monazite deposits occur in Palakkad and Kollam districts of Kerala, near Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh and Mahanadi river delta in Orissa.
• Atomic Energy Commission was established in 1948, progress could be made only after the establishment of the Atomic Energy Institute at Trombay in 1954 which was renamed as the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1967.
• The important nuclear power projects are Tarapur (Maharashtra) Rawatbhata near Kota (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga (Karnataka) and Kakarapara (Gujarat

Solar Energy

• Sun rays tapped in photovoltaic cells can be converted into energy, known as solar energy.
• The two effective processes considered to be very effective to tap solar energy are photovoltaics and solar thermal technology.
• Solar thermal technology has some relative advantages over all other non-renewable energy sources.
• It is cost competitive, environment friendly and easy to construct.
• Solar energy is 7 per cent more effective than coal or oil based plants and 10 per cent more effective than nuclear plants.
• It is generally used more in appliances like heaters, crop dryers, cookers, etc.
• The western part of India has greater potential for the development of solar energy in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Wind Energy

• Wind energy is absolutely pollution free, inexhaustible source of energy.
• The kinetic energy of wind, through turbines is converted into electrical energy.
• The permanent wind systems such the trade winds, westerlies and seasonal wind like monsoon have been used as source of energy. Besides these, local winds, land and sea breezes can also be used to produce electricity.
• India has an ambitious programme to install 250 wind-driven turbines with a total capacity of 45 megawatts, spread over 12 suitable locations, specially in coastal areas.
• In Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka, favourable conditions for wind energy exist.
• Wind power plant at Lamba in Gujarat in Kachchh is the largest in Asia.
• Other- Tuticorin in Tamil Nadu

Tidal and Wave Energy

• Ocean currents are the store-house of infinite energy.
• Large tidal waves are known to occur along the west coast of India.

Geothermal Energy

• When the magma from the interior of earth, comes out on the surface, tremendous heat is released.
• This heat energy can successfully be tapped and converted to electrical energy.
• Apart from this, the hot water that gushes out through the gyser wells is also used in the generation of thermal energy.
• It is popularly known as geothermal energy.
• Location- Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh.

Bio-energy

• Refers to energy derived from biological products which includes agricultural residues, municipal, industrial and other wastes.
• It can be converted into electrical energy, heat energy or gas for cooking.
• It will also process the waste and garbage and produce energy.
• This will improve economic life of rural areas in developing countries, reduce environmental pollution, enhance self-reliance and reduce pressure on fuel wood.
• One such project converting municipal waste into energy is Okhla in Delhi.

Conservation of Mineral Resources:

• The alternative energy sources like solar power, wind, wave, geothermal energy are inexhaustible resource.
• These should be developed to replace the exhaustible resources.
• In case of metallic minerals, use of scrap metals will enable recycling of metals.
• Use of scrap is especially significant in metals like copper, lead and zinc in which India’s reserves are meager.
• Use of substitutes for scarce metals may also reduce their consumption.
• Export of strategic and scarce minerals must be reduced, so that the existing reserve may be used for a longer period

Chapter- 8
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

Types of Industries-

1. On the basis of ownership, industries are categorized as:

1. Public sector,
2. Private sector, and
3. Joint and cooperative sector,

Industries are also classified on the basis of the use of their products such as:

• Basic goods industries,
• Capital goods industries
• Intermediate goods industries, and
• Consumer goods industries

2. On the basis of raw materials used by them:

• agriculture- based industries,
• forest-based industries,
• mineral-based industries, and
• Industrially processed raw material- based industries.

Based on the nature of the manufactured products-

Metallurgical Industries, (2) Mechanical Engineering Industries, (3) Chemical and Allied Industries, (4) Textile Industries, (5) Food Processing Industries, (6) Electricity Generation, (7) Electronics and (8) Communication Industries

Industrial Regions and Districts

Major Industrial Regions (8)

 1.Mumabi-Pune Region, 2. Hugli Region, 3. Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Region, 4. Gujarat Region, 5. Chotanagpur Region, 6. Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region, 7. Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Region, and 8. Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Region          

Minor Industrial Regions (13)

1. Ambala-Amritsar, 2. Saharanpur-Muzaffarnagar-Bijnor, 3. Indore-Dewas-Uijjain, 4. Jaipur-Ajmer, 5. Kolhapur-South Kannada, 6. Northern Malabar, 7. Middle Malabar,8. Adilabad-Nizamabad, 9. Allahabad-Varanasi-Mirzapur, 10. Bhojpur-Munger,11. Durg-Raipur, 12. Bilaspur-Korba, and 13. Brahmaputra valley

Industrial Districts (15)

1. Kanpur, 2. Hyderabad, 3. Agra, 4. Nagpur, 5. Gwalior, 6. Bhopal, 7. Lucknow, 8. Jalpaiguri, 9. Cuttack, 10. Gorakhpur,11. Aligarh, 12. Kota, 13. Purnia, 14. Jabalpur, and 15. Bareilly

Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization (LPG) and Industrial Development

In India

• The new Industrial Policy was announced in 1991.
• The major objectives of this policy were to build on the gains already made, correct the distortions or weaknesses that have crept in, maintain a sustained growth in productivity and gainful employment and attain international competitiveness.

Within this policy, measures initiated are-

• Abolition of industrial licensing, (2) free entry to foreign technology, (3) foreign investment policy, (4) access to capital market, (5) open trade, (6) abolition of phased manufacturing programme, and (7) liberalised industrial location programme.
• The policy has three main dimensions: liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation.
• The industrial licensing system has been abolished for all except six industries related to security, strategic or environmental concerns.
• At the same time, the number of industries reserved for public sector since 1956 have been reduced from 17 to 4.
• The threshold limits of assets have been scrapped and no industry requires prior approval for investing in the delicensed sector. They only need to submit a memorandum in the prescribed format.
• In the new industrial policy, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) has been seen as a supplement to the domestic investment for achieving a higher level of economic development.
• FDI benefits the domestic industry as well as the consumers by providing technological upgradation, access to global managerial skills and practices, optimum use of natural and human resources, etc.
• The government has also announced changes in the industrial location policies.
• Globalisation means integrating the economy of the country with the world economy.

In Indian context, this implies-

1. opening of the economy to foreign direct investment by providing facilities to foreign companies to invest in different fields of economies activity in India;
2. removing restrictions and obstacles to the entry of multi- national companies in India;
3. allowing Indian companies to enter into foreign collaboration in India and also encouraging them to set up joint ventures abroad;
4. carrying out massive import liberalisation programmes by switching over from quantitative restrictions to tariffs in the first place, and then bringing down the level of import duties considerably; and
5. instead of a set of export incentives, opting for exchange rate adjustments for promoting export

Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region

• Extends from Mumbai-Thane to Pune and in adjoining districts of Nashik and Solapur.
• Besides, industrial development has been rapid in Kolaba, Ahmednagar, Satara, Sangli and Jalgaon districts.
• Development of this region started with the location of cotton textile industry in Mumbai.
• Mumbai, with cotton hinterland and moist climate favoured the location of cotton textile industry.
• Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 provided impetus to the growth of Mumbai port.
• Hydro-electricity was developed in the Western Ghat region to meet the requirements of this industry.

Hugli Industrial Region

• Historically, geographical, economic and political factors have contributed much to its development.
• Development of tea plantations in Assam and northern hills of West Bengal, the processing of indigo earlier and jute later coupled with the opening of coalfields of the Damodar Valley and iron ore deposits of the Chotanagpur plateau, contributed to the industrial development of the region.
• Cheap labour available from thickly populated part of Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa also contributed to its development.
• Kolkata, being the capital city of British India (1773-1911), attracted the British capital.
• The establishment of first jute mill at Rishra in 1855 ushered in the era of modern industrial clustering in this region.
• Location of petroleum refinery at Haldia has facilitated the development of a variety of industries.
• However, industrial growth of this region has slowed down in comparison to other regions. Decline of the jute industry is one of the reasons

Bangalore-Chennai Industrial Region

• Since, this region is away from the coalfields; its development is dependent on the Pykara hydroelectric plant, which was built in 1932.
• Cotton textile industry was the first to take roots due to the presence of cotton growing areas.
• Aircraft (HAL), machine tools, telephone (HTL) and Bharat Electronics are industrial landmarks of this region.
• Important industries are textiles, rail wagons, diesel engines, radio, light engineering goods, rubber goods, medicines, aluminium, sugar, cement, glass, paper, chemicals, film, cigarette, match box, leather goods, etc.
• Petroleum refinery at Chennai, iron and steel plant at Salem and fertiliser plants are recent developments.

Gujarat Industrial Region

• Development of this region is also associated with the location of the cotton textile industry since 1860s.
• This region became an important textile region with the decline of the cotton textile industry at Mumbai.
• Located in cotton growing area, this region has double advantage of the proximity of raw materials as well as of market.
• The discovery of oil fields led to the establishment of petrochemical industries around Ankleshwar, Vadodara and Jamnagar.
• The port at Kandla helped in the rapid growth of this region. Petroleum refinery at Koyali provided raw materials to a host of petrochemical industries

Chotanagpur Region

• Proximity of coal, iron ore and other minerals facilitated the location of heavy industries in this region.
• Six large integrated iron and steel plants at Jamshedpur, Burnpur- Kulti, Durgapur, Bokaro and Rourkela are located within this region.
• To meet the power requirement, thermal and hydroelectric plants have been constructed in the Damodar Valley.
• Densely populated surrounding regions provide cheap labour and Hugli region provides vast market for its industries.
• Heavy engineering, machine tools, fertilisers, cement, paper, locomotives and heavy electrical are some of the important industries in this region.
• Important centres are Ranchi, Dhanbad, Chaibasa, Sindri, Hazaribagh, Jamshedpur, Bokaro, Rourkela, Durgapur, Asansol and Dalmianagar.

Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region

• Industrial development of this region hinges upon Vishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam ports and developed agriculture and rich reserves of minerals in their hinterlands.
• Coalfields of the Godavari basin provide energy.
• Petroleum refinery based on imported petroleum facilitated the growth of several petrochemical industries.
• One lead-zinc smelter is functioning in Guntur district.

Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Region

• Electronics, light engineering and electrical goods are major industries of this region.
• Besides, there are cotton, woollen and synthetic fabrics, hosiery, sugar, cement, machine tools, tractor, cycle, agricultural implements, chemical and vanaspati industries which have developed on large scale.
• Software industry
• To the south lies the Agra-Mathura industrial area which specialises in glass and leather goods.
• Mathura with an oil refinery is a petrochemical complex. Among industrial centres, mention be made of Gurgaon, Delhi, Shahdara, Faridabad, Meerut, Modinagar, Ghaziabad, Ambala, Agra and Mathura.

Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Region

• Plantation agriculture and hydropower provide industrial base to this region.
• Located far away from the mineral belt of the country, agricultural products processing and market oriented light industries predominate the region.
• Among them, cotton textile, sugar, rubber, matchbox, glass, chemical fertiliser and fish-based industries
• Food processing, paper, coconut coir products, aluminium and cement industries
• Location of petroleum refinery at Kochchi

Target Area Planning

• The planning process has to take special care of those areas which have remained economically backward.
• Sometimes resource-rich region also remain backward. The economic development also requires technology as well as investment besides the resource.
• In order to arrest the accentuation of regional and social disparities, the Planning Commission introduced the target area’ and target group approaches to planning.
• Some of the examples of programmes directed towards the development of target areas are Command Area Development Programme, Drought Prone Area Development Programme, Desert Development Programme, Hill Area Development Programme.
• The Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA) and Marginal Farmers Development Agency (MFDA) which are the examples of target group programme.
• In the 8th Five year Plan special area programmes were designed to develop infrastructure in hill areas, north-eastern states, tribal areas and backward areas.

Hill Area Development Programme

• Initiated during Fifth Five Year Plan covering 15 districts comprising all the hilly districts of Uttar Pradesh (present Uttarakhand), Mikir Hill and North Cachar hills of Assam, Darjiling district of West Bengal and Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu
• The National Committee on the Development of Backward Area in 1981 recommended that all the hill areas in the country having height above 600 m and not covered under tribal sub-plan be treated as backward hill areas.
• Plan is based on topographical, ecological, social and economic conditions.
• These programmes aimed at harnessing the indigenous resources of the hill areas through development of horticulture, plantation agriculture, animal husbandry, poultry, forestry and small-scale and village industry.

Drought Prone Area Programme

• Initiated during the Fourth Five Year Plan with the objectives of providing employment to the people in drought-prone areas and creating productive assets.
• Initially this programme laid emphasis on the construction of labor-intensive civil works.
• But later on, it emphasized on irrigation projects, land development programmes, afforestation, grassland development and creation of basic rural infrastructure such as electricity, roads, market, credit and services.
• The other strategies of development of these areas include adoption of integrated watershed development approach at the micro-level.
• The restoration of ecological balance between water, soil, plants, and human and animal population should be a basic consideration in the strategy of development of drought-prone areas.
• Irrigation Commission (1972) introduced the criterion of 30 per cent irrigated area and demarcated the drought prone areas

Sustainable Development

• The notion of sustainable development emerged in the wake of general rise in the awareness of environmental issues in the late 1960s in Western World.
• United Nations established a World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) headed by the Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland.
• The Commission gave its report (also known as Brundtland Report) entitled „Our Common Future? in 1987.
• The report defines sustainable development as a “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
• Sustainable development takes care of ecological, social and economic aspects of development during the present times and pleads for conservation of resources to enable the future generations to use these resources.

Oil and Gas Pipelines

• Pipelines are the most convenient and efficient mode of transporting liquids and gases over long distances.
• Even solids can also be transported by pipelines after converting them into slurry.
• Oil India Limited (OIL) under the administrative set up of the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas is engaged in the exploration, production and transportation of crude oil and natural gas. It was incorporated in 1959 as a company.
• Asia’s first cross country pipeline covering a distance of 1,157 km was constructed by OIL from Naharkatiya oilfield in Assam to Barauni refinery in Bihar. It was further extended up to Kanpur in 1966.
• Another extensive network of pipelines has been constructed in the western region of India of which Ankleshwar -Koyali, Mumbai High- Koyali and Hazira-Vijaipur- Jagdishpur (HVJ) are most important.
• Recently, a 1256 km long pipeline connecting Salaya (Gujarat) with Mathura (U.P.) has been constructed.
• It supplies crude oil from Gujarat to Punjab (Jalandhar) via Mathura.

Oceanic Routes

• India’s coastline- 7,517 km
• Approximately 95 per cent of India’s foreign trade by volume and 70 per cent by value moves through ocean routes.
• Apart from international trade, these are also used for the purpose of transportation between the islands and the rest of the country.

Air Transportation

• It has reduced distances by minimising the travel time.
• It is very essential for a vast country like India, where distances are large and the terrain and climatic conditions are diverse.
• Air transport in India made a beginning in 1911 when airmail operation commenced over a little distance of 10 km between Allahabad and Naini.
• Airport Authority of India
• The air transport in India is managed by two corporations, Air India and Indian Airlines after nationalisation.

Air India

• Air India provides International Air Services for both passengers and cargo traffic.
• It connects all the continents of the world through its services.
• About 52 per cent of the total air traffic was handled only at Mumbai and Delhi airports.
• Pawan Hans is the helicopter service operating in hilly areas and is widely used by tourists in north-eastern sector.
• Pawan Hans Limited mainly provides helicopter services to petroleum sector and for tourism.

Open Sky Policy

• To help the Indian exporters and make their export more competitive, the government had introduced an Open Sky Policy for cargo in April 1992.
• Under this policy, foreign airlines or association of exporters can bring any freighters to the country.

Urban Waste Disposal

• Environmental pollution by solid wastes has now got significance because of enormous growth in the quantity of wastes generated from various sources.
• These discarded materials are also termed as refuse, garbage and rubbish, etc. and are disposed of from two sources-
• Household or domestic establishments, and
• Industrial or commercial establishments.
• The household wastes is disposed off either on public lands or on private contractors? sites, whereas the solid wastes of industrial units are collected and disposed off through public (municipal) facilities at low lying public grounds (landfill areas).
• Solid wastes cause health hazard through creation of obnoxious smell , and harbouring of flies and rodents, which act as carriers of diseases like typhoid, diphtheria, diarrhoea, malaria and cholera, etc
• Urban waste disposal is a serious problem in India. In metropolitan cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, etc.

Problems of Slums

• The concept “Urban or Urban Centre” is defined in settlement geography to differentiate it from the “Rural slums”, jhuggi-jhopari” clusters and colonies of shanty structures.
• These are inhabited by those people who were forced to migrate from the rural areas to these urban centres in search of livelihood but could not afford proper housing due to high rent and high costs of land.
• Slums are residential areas of the least choice, dilapidated houses, poor hygienic conditions, poor ventilation, lack of basic amenities like drinking water, light and toilet facilities, etc.
• These areas are overcrowded having narrow street pattern prone to serious hazards from fire.
• Most of the slum population works in low paid, high risk-prone, unorganized sectors of the urban economy.
• Consequently, they are the undernourished, prone to different types of diseases and illness and can ill afford to give proper education to their children.
• Result- drug abuse, alcoholism, crime, vandalism, escapism, apathy and ultimately social exclusion.

Land Degradation

• The pressure on agricultural land increases not only due to the limited availability but also by deterioration of quality of agricultural land.
• Soil erosion, water-logging, salinization and alkalinisation of land lead to land degradation.
• Land is degraded and productivity declines.
• There are two processes that induce land degradation. These are natural and created by human beings.
• National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) has classified wastelands by using remote sensing techniques and it is possible to categorize these wastelands according to the processes that have created them.
• There are a few types of wastelands such as gullied /ravenous land, desertic or coastal sands, barren rocky areas, steep sloping land, and glacial areas, which are primarily caused by natural agents.
• There are other types of degraded lands such as waterlogged and marshy areas, land affected by salinity and alkalinity and land with or without scrub, which have largely been caused by natural as well as human factors