Chapter- 1
GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE

The term geography was first coined by Eratosthenese, a Greek scholar (276-194 BC.).

Chapter- 2
THE ORIGIN & EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH

EARLY THEORIES-

Nebular Hypothesis-

• By German philosopher Immanuel Kant.
• Mathematician Laplace revised it in 1796.
• The hypothesis considered that the planets were formed out of a cloud of material associated with a youthful sun, which was slowly rotating.
• Later in 1900, Chamberlain and Moulton considered that a wandering star approached the sun.
• As the passing star moved away, the material separated from the solar surface continued to revolve around the sun and it slowly condensed into planets

Binary theories-

• The arguments considered of a companion to the sun to have been coexisting.

Revised Nebular Hypothesis-

• By Otto Schmidt in Russia and Carl Weizascar in Germany
• They considered that the sun was surrounded by solar nebula containing mostly the hydrogen and helium along with what may be termed as dust.
• The friction and collision of particles led to formation of a disk-shaped cloud and the planets were formed through the process of accretion

The Moon

Only natural satellite of the earth.

Early theory-

• In 1838, Sir George Darwin suggested that initially, the earth and the moon formed a single rapidly rotating body.
• The whole mass became a dumb-bell-shaped body and eventually it broke.
• It was also suggested that the material forming the moon was separated from what we have at present the depression occupied by the Pacific Ocean

Giant impact’ “the big splat Theory-

• A body of the size of one to three times that of mars collided into the earth sometime shortly after the earth was formed.
• It blasted a large part of the earth into space.
• This portion of blasted material then continued to orbit the earth and eventually formed into the present moon about 4.44 billion years ago.

Origin of Life

• The last phase in the evolution of the earth
• Modern scientists refer to the origin of life as a kind of chemical reaction, which first generated complex organic molecules and assembled them.
• This assemblage was such that they could duplicate themselves converting inanimate matter into living substance.
• The record of life that existed on this planet in different periods is found in rocks in the form of fossils.
• The microscopic structures closely related to the present form of blue algae have been found in geological formations much older than some 3,000 million years.
• It can be assumed that life began to evolve sometime 3,800 million years ago

MODERN THEORIES-

Origin of the Universe-

Big Bang Theory-

• Also called expanding universe hypothesis.
• In the beginning, all matter forming the universe existed in one place in the form of a “tiny ball” (singular atom) with an unimaginably small volume, infinite temperature and infinite density.
• At the Big Bang the “tiny ball” exploded violently. This led to a huge expansion.
• took place 13.7 billion years before
• The expansion continues even to the present day.
• There was particularly rapid expansion within fractions of a second after the bang.
• Thereafter, the expansion has slowed down. Within first 3 minutes from the Big Bang event, the first atom began to form.
• Within 300,000 years from the Big Bang, temperature dropped to 4,500 K (Kelvin) and gave rise to atomic matter.
• The expansion of universe means increase in space between the galaxies.
• An alternative to this was Hoyle’s concept of steady state.
• It considered the universe to be roughly the same at any point of time.
• However, with greater evidence becoming available about the expanding universe, scientific community at present favours argument of expanding universe.

The Star Formation

• The distribution of matter and energy was not even in the early universe.
• These initial density differences gave rise to differences in gravitational forces and it caused the matter to get drawn together. These formed the bases for development of galaxies.
• A galaxy contains a large number of stars. Galaxies spread over vast distances that are measured in thousands of light-years.
• A galaxy starts to form by accumulation of hydrogen gas in the form of a very large cloud called nebula.
• Eventually, growing nebula develops localized clumps of gas.
• These clumps continue to grow into even denser gaseous bodies, giving rise to formation of stars.
• A light year is a measure of distance and not of time.
• Light travels at a speed of 300,000 km/second.
• One light year- 9.461 1012 km.
• The mean distance between the sun and the earth is 149,598,000 km. In terms of light years, it is 8.311minutes.

Formation of Planets-

• The stars are localised lumps of gas within a nebula.
• The gravitational force within the lumps leads to the formation of a core to the gas cloud and a huge rotating disc of gas and dust develops around the gas core.
• The gas cloud starts getting condensed and the matter around the core develops into small- rounded objects.
• These small-rounded objects by the process of cohesion develop in the same period sometime about 4.6 billion years ago.
• Planetesimals are a large number of smaller bodies.
• Till recently (August 2006), Pluto was also considered a planet.
• However, in a meeting of the International Astronomical Union, a decision was taken that Pluto like other celestial into what is called planetesimals objects
• These large number of small planetesimals accrete to form a fewer large bodies in the form of planets

OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

• 8 planets
• The nebula, from which our Solar system is supposed to have been formed, started its collapse and core formation some time 5-5.6 billion years ago and the planets were formed about 4.6 billion years ago.
• Sun (the star), 8 planets, 63 moons, millions of smaller bodies like asteroids and comets and huge quantity of dust-grains and gases.
• Out of the eight planets, mercury, Venus, earth and mars are called as the inner planets as they lie between the sun and the belt of asteroids the other four planets are called the outer planets.
• Alternatively, the first four are called Terrestrial, meaning earth-like as they are made up of rock and metals, and have relatively high densities.
• The rest four are called Jovian or Gas Giant planets. Jovian means Jupiter-like. Most of them are much larger than the terrestrial planets and have thick atmosphere, mostly of helium and hydrogen.
• All the planets were formed may be called ‘dwarf planet’

EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH-

• The planet earth initially was a barren, rocky and hot object with a thin atmosphere of hydrogen and helium.
• The earth has a layered structure.
• From the outermost end of the atmosphere to the centre of the earth, the material that exists is not uniform.
• The atmospheric matter has the least density.
• From the surface to deeper depths, the earth’s interior has different zones and each of these contains materials with different characteristics.

Evolution of Lithosphere

• The earth was mostly in a volatile state during its primordial stage.
• Due to gradual increase in density the temperature inside has increased.
• As a result the material inside started getting separated depending on their densities.
• This allowed heavier materials (like iron) to sink towards the centre of the earth and the lighter ones to move towards the surface.
• With passage of time it cooled further and solidified and condensed into a smaller size.
• This later led to the development of the outer surface in the form of a crust.
• During the formation of the moon, due to the giant impact, the earth was further heated up.
• It is through the process of differentiation that the earth forming material got separated into different layers.
• Starting from the surface to the central parts, we have layers like the crust, mantle, outer core and inner core.
• From the crust to the core, the density of the material increases

Evolution of Atmosphere and Hydrosphere

• The present composition of earth’s atmosphere is chiefly contributed by nitrogen and oxygen.
• There are three stages in the evolution of the present atmosphere.
• The first stage is marked by the loss of primordial atmosphere.
• In the second stage, the hot interior of the earth contributed to the evolution of the atmosphere.
• Finally, the composition of the atmosphere was modified by the living world through the process of photosynthesis.
• The early atmosphere, with hydrogen and helium, is supposed to have been stripped off as a result of the solar winds.
• This happened not only in case of the earth, but also in all the terrestrial planets, which were supposed to have lost their primordial atmosphere through the impact of solar winds.
• During the cooling of the earth, gases and water vapour were released from the interior solid earth.
• This started the evolution of the present atmosphere.
• The early atmosphere largely contained water vapour, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia and very little of free oxygen.
• The process through which the gases were outpoured from the interior is called degassing.
• Continuous volcanic eruptions contributed water vapour and gases to the atmosphere.
• As the earth cooled, the water vapour released started getting condensed.
• The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere got dissolved in rainwater and the temperature further decreased causing more condensation and more rains.
• The rainwater falling onto the surface got collected in the depressions to give rise to oceans.
• The earth’s oceans were formed within 500 million years from the formation of the earth.
• This tells us that the oceans are as old as 4,000 million years.
• Sometime around 3,800 million years ago, life began to evolve.
• However, around 2,500-3,000 million years before the present, the process of photosynthesis got evolved.
• Life was confined to the oceans for a long time.
• Oceans began to have the contribution of oxygen through the process of photosynthesis.
• Eventually, oceans were saturated with oxygen, and 2,000 million years ago, oxygen began to flood the atmosphere.

Chapter-3
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT THE INTERIOR

The earth’s radius is 6,370 km.

Two type of source of information:-

1. Indirect            
2. Direct

Direct Sources-

• Surface rock or the rocks we get from mining areas.
• Example- Gold mines in South Africa are as deep as 3 - 4 km.
• Example- Scientists world over are working on two major projects such as “Deep Ocean Drilling Project” and “Integrated Ocean Drilling Project”.
• The deepest drill at Kola, in Arctic Ocean, has so far reached a depth of 12 km
• Volcanic eruption forms another source of obtaining direct information.
• As and when the molten material (magma) is thrown onto the surface of the earth, during volcanic eruption it becomes available for laboratory analysis.
• This and many deep drilling projects have provided large volume of information through the analysis of materials collected at different depths.

Indirect Sources-

• Through the mining activity that temperature and pressure increase with the increasing distance from the surface towards the interior in deeper depths.
• Moreover, it is also known that the density of the material also increases with depth.
• Another source of information are the meteors that at times reach the earth.
• The material and the structure observed in the meteors are similar to that of the earth.
• They are solid bodies developed out of materials same as, or similar to, our planet.
• The other indirect sources include gravitation, magnetic field, and seismic activity.
• The gravitation force (g) is not the same at different latitudes on the surface.
• It is greater near the poles and less at the equator.
• This is because of the distance from the centre at the equator being greater than that at the poles. The gravity values also differ according to the mass of material.
• The reading of the gravity at different places is influenced by many other factors. These readings differ from the expected values. Such a difference is called gravity anomaly.
• Gravity anomalies give us information about the distribution of mass of the material in the crust of the earth.
• Magnetic surveys also provide information about the distribution of magnetic materials in the crustal portion, and thus, provide information about the distribution of materials in this part.
• Seismic activity is one of the most important sources of information about the interior of the earth.

Earthquake

• The study of seismic waves provides a complete picture of the layered interior.
• An earthquake in simple words is shaking of the earth.
• It is caused due to release of energy, which generates waves that travel in all directions.
• The release of energy occurs along a fault.
• A fault is a sharp break in the crustal rocks.
• Rocks along a fault tend to move in opposite directions. (as in case of Indian and Eurasia plate happen during Nepal earth quack)
• As the overlying rock strata press them, the friction locks them together.
• However, their tendency to move apart at some point of time overcomes the friction.
• As a result, the blocks get deformed and eventually, they slide past one another abruptly
• This causes a release of energy, and the energy waves travel in all directions.
• The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an earthquake, alternatively, it is called the hypocentre. ( somewhere inside the earth )
• The point on the surface, nearest to the focus, is called epicentre.
• It is the first one to experience the waves.
• It is a point directly above the focus. (Always above the hypocenter and on the surface of earth)

Earthquake Waves

• An instrument called ‘seismograph’ records the waves reaching the surface.
• All natural earthquakes take place in the lithosphere (depth up to 200 km from the surface of the earth.)
• Two types of waves — body waves and surface waves.
• Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all directions travelling through the body of the earth. Hence, the name body waves.
• The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate new set of waves called surface waves. These waves move along the surface.
• The velocity of waves changes as they travel through materials with different densities.
• The denser the material, the higher is the velocity.
• Their direction also changes as they reflect or refract when coming across materials with different densities.

Body Waves-

They are called P and S-waves.

P-waves-

• Moves faster and are the first to arrive at the surface. These are also called ‘primary waves’.
• The P-waves are similar to sound waves.
• They travel through gaseous, liquid and solid materials.(as sound)
• P-waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave. (P for parallel)
• This exerts pressure on the material in the direction of the propagation.
• As a result, it creates density differences in the material leading to stretching and squeezing of the material

S-waves-

• Arrives at the surface with some time lag. These are called secondary waves.
• An important fact about S-waves is that they can travel only through solid materials
• It has helped scientists to understand the structure of the interior of the earth.
• Reflection causes waves to rebound whereas refraction makes waves move in different directions.
• These waves are more destructive.
• They cause displacement of rocks, and hence, the collapse of structures occurs.
• The direction of vibrations of S-waves is perpendicular to the wave direction in the vertical plane.
• Hence, they create troughs and crests in the material through which they pass.

Shadow Zone

• Earthquake waves get recorded in seismographs located at far off locations.
• However, there exist some specific areas where the waves are not reported.
• Such a zone is called the ‘shadow zone’.
• A zone between 105° and 145° from epicentre was identified as the shadow zone for both the types of waves.
• The entire zone beyond 105° does not receive S-waves. The shadow zone of S-wave is much larger than that of the P-waves.
• The shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band around the earth between 105° and 145° away from the epicentre.

Types of Earthquakes

(i) The most common ones are the tectonic earthquakes. These are generated due to sliding of rocks along a fault plane.

(ii) A special class of tectonic earthquake is sometimes recognised as volcanic earthquake. However, these are confined to areas of active volcanoes.

(iii) In the areas of intense mining activity, sometimes the roofs of underground mines collapse causing minor tremors. These are called collapse earthquakes.

(iv) Ground shaking may also occur due to the explosion of chemical or nuclear devices. Such tremors are called explosion earthquakes.

(v) The earthquakes that occur in the areas of large reservoirs are referred to as reservoir induced earthquakes

Measuring Earthquakes

• The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude or intensity of the shock.
• The magnitude scale is known as the Richter scale.
• The magnitude relates to the energy released during the quake.
• The magnitude is expressed in absolute numbers, 0-10.
• The intensity scale is named after Mercalli, an Italian seismologist.
• The intensity scale takes into account the visible damage caused by the event.
• The range of intensity scale is from 1-12.

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE

1. Ground Shaking
2. Differential ground settlement
3. Land and mud slides
4. Soil liquefaction
5. Ground lurching
6. Avalanches
7. Ground displacement
8. Floods from dam and levee failures
9. Fires
10. Structural collapse
11. Falling objects
12. Tsunami

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

The Crust

• It is the outermost solid part of the earth.
• It is brittle in nature.
• The thickness of the crust varies under the oceanic and continental areas.
• Oceanic crust is thinner as compared to the continental crust.
• The mean thickness of oceanic crust is 5 km whereas that of the continental is around 30 km.
• It is as much as 70 km thick in the Himalayan region.
• It is made up of heavier rocks having density of 3 g/cm3.
• This type of rock found in the oceanic crust is basalt.
• The mean density of material in oceanic crust is 2.7 g/cm3.

The Mantle

• The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called the mantle.
• The mantle extends from Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
• The upper portion of the mantle is called asthenosphere.
• The word astheno means weak. It is considered to be extending upto 400 km.
• It is the main source of magma that finds its way to the surface during volcanic eruptions.
• It has a density higher than the crust’s (3.4 g/cm3).
• The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are called lithosphere. Its thickness ranges from 10-200 km.
• The lower mantle extends beyond the asthenosphere. It is in solid state

The Core

• The core- mantle boundary is located at the depth of 2,900 km.
• The outer core is in liquid state while the inner core is in solid state.
• The density of material at the mantle core boundary is around 5 g/cm3 and at the centre of the earth at 6,300 km, the density value is around 13g/cm3.
• The core is made up of very heavy material mostly constituted by nickel and iron. It is sometimes referred to as the nife layer.

VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC LANDFORMS

• A volcano is a place where gases, ashes and/or molten rock material – lava – escape to the ground.
• A volcano is called an active volcano if the materials mentioned are being released or have been released out in the recent past.
• The mantle contains a weaker zone called asthenosphere.
• The material in the upper mantle(asthenosphere ) portion is called magma.
• Once it starts moving towards the crust or it reaches the surface, it is referred to as lava.
• The material that reaches the ground includes lava flows, pyroclastic debris, volcanic bombs, ash and dust and gases such as nitrogen compounds, sulphur compounds and minor amounts of chlorine, hydrogen and argon.
• Volcanoes are classified on the basis of nature of eruption and the form developed at the surface.

Types of volcanoes

Shield Volcanoes

• Barring the basalt flows, the shield volcanoes are the largest of all the volcanoes on the earth.
• Example- Hawaiian volcanoes
• These volcanoes are mostly made up of basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid when erupted.
• For this reason, these volcanoes are not steep.
• They become explosive if somehow water gets into the vent; otherwise, they are characterised by low-explosivity.
• The upcoming lava moves in the form of a fountain and throws out the cone at the top of the vent and develops into cinder cone.

Composite Volcanoes

• These volcanoes are characterised by eruptions of cooler and more viscous lavas than basalt.
• These volcanoes often result in explosive eruptions.
• Along with lava, large quantities of pyroclastic material and ashes find their way to the ground.
• This material accumulates in the vicinity of the vent openings leading to formation of layers, and this makes the mounts appear as composite volcanoes more than 50 m.
• Individual flows may extend for hundreds of km.
• The Deccan Traps from India, presently covering most of the Maharashtra plateau, are a much larger flood basalt province.

Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanoes

• These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas.
• There is a system of mid-ocean ridges more than 70,000 km long that stretches through all the ocean basins.
• The central portion of this ridge experiences frequent eruptions.

VOLCANIC LANDFORMS

Intrusive Forms

• The lava that is released during volcanic eruptions on cooling develops into igneous rocks.
• The cooling may take place either on reaching the surface or also while the lava is still in the crustal portion.
• Depending on the location of the cooling of the lava, igneous rocks are classified as volcanic rocks (cooling at the surface) and plutonic rocks (cooling in the crust).
• The lava that cools within the crustal portions assumes different forms. These forms are called intrusive forms.

Caldera

• These are the most explosive of the earth’s volcanoes.
• They are usually so explosive that when they erupt they tend to collapse on themselves rather than building any tall structure.
• The collapsed depressions are called calderas.
• Their explosiveness indicates that the magma chamber supplying the lava is not only huge but is also in close vicinity.

Flood Basalt Provinces

• These volcanoes outpour highly fluid lava that flows for long distances.
• Some parts of the world are covered by thousands of sq. km of thick basalt lava flows.
• There can be a series of flows with some flows attaining thickness

Batholiths

• A large body of magmatic material that cools in the deeper depth of the crust develops in the form of large domes.
• They appear on the surface only after the denudational processes remove the overlying materials.
• They cover large areas, and at times, assume depth that may be several km. These are granitic bodies.
• Batholiths are the cooled portion of magma chambers.

Lacoliths

• These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and connected by a pipe-like conduit from below.
• It resembles the surface volcanic domes of composite volcano, only these are located at deeper depths.
• It can be regarded as the localised source of lava that finds its way to the surface.
• The Karnataka plateau is spotted with domal hills of granite rocks.
• Most of these, now exfoliated, are examples of Lacoliths or batholiths

Lopolith, Phacolith and Sills

• As and when the lava moves upwards, a portion of the same may tend to move in a horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak plane.
• It may get rested in different forms. In case it develops into a saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is called Lopolith.
• A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at the base of synclines or at the top of anticline in folded igneous country.
• Such wavy materials have a definite conduit to source beneath in the form of magma chambers (subsequently developed as batholiths). These are called the Phacolith.
• The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or sheet, depending on the thickness of the material.
• The thinner ones are called sheets while the thick horizontal deposits are called sills.

Dykes

• When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures developed in the land, it solidifies almost perpendicular to the ground.
• It gets cooled in the same position to develop a wall-like structure. Such structures are called dykes.
• These are the most commonly found intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra area.
• These are considered the feeders for the eruptions that led to the development of the Deccan traps.

Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes

• There is a line of dots in the central parts of the Atlantic Ocean almost parallel to the coastlines.
• It further extends into the Indian Ocean.
• It bifurcates a little south of the Indian subcontinent with one branch moving into East Africa and the other meeting a similar line from Myanmar to New Guiana.
• The shaded belt showing another area of concentration coincides with the Alpine- Himalayan system and the rim of the Pacific Ocean.
• In general, the foci of the earthquake in the areas of mid-oceanic ridges are at shallow depths whereas along the Alpine-Himalayan belt as well as the rim of the Pacific, the earthquakes are deep-seated ones.
• The rim of the Pacific is also called rim of fire due to the existence of active volcanoes in this area.

Chapter-4
DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS & CONTINENTS

CONTINENTAL DRIFT-

• By Alfred Wegener—a German meteorologist 1912. This was regarding the distribution of the oceans and the continents.
• According to Wegener, all the continents formed a single continental mass and mega ocean surrounded the same.
• The super continent was named PANGAEA, which meant all earth.
• The mega-ocean was called PANTHALASSA, meaning all water.
• He argued that, around 200 million years ago, the super continent, Pangaea, began to split.
• Pangaea first broke into two large continental masses as Laurasia and Gondwanaland forming the northern and southern components respectively.
• Subsequently, Laurasia and Gondwanaland continued to break into various smaller continents that exist today.

Evidence in Support of the Continental Drift

1. The Matching of Continents (Jig-Saw-Fit)

• The shorelines of Africa and South America facing each other have a remarkable and unmistakable match.
• It may be noted that a map produced using a computer programme to find the best fit of the Atlantic margin was presented by Bullard in 1964.
• It proved to be quite perfect.
• The match was tried at 1,000- fathom line instead of the present shoreline.

2. Rocks of Same Age Across the Oceans

• The radiometric dating methods developed in the recent period have facilitated correlating the rock formation from different continents across the vast ocean.
• The belt of ancient rocks of 2,000 million years from Brazil coast matches with those from western Africa.
• The earliest marine deposits along the coastline of South America and Africa are of the Jurassic age.
• This suggests that the ocean did not exist prior to that time.

3. Tillite

• It is the sedimentary rock formed out of deposits of glaciers.
• The Gondwana system of sediments from India is known to have its counter parts in six different landmasses of the Southern Hemisphere.
• At the base the system has thick tillite indicating extensive and prolonged glaciation.
• Counter parts of this succession are found in Africa, Falkland Island, Madagascar, Antarctica and Australia besides India.
• Overall resemblance of the Gondwana type sediments clearly demonstrates that these landmasses had remarkably similar histories.
• The glacial tillite provides unambiguous evidence of palaeoclimates and also of drifting of continents.

4. Placer Deposits

• The occurrence of rich placer deposits of gold in the Ghana coast and the absolute absence of source rock in the region is an amazing fact.
• The gold bearing veins are in Brazil and it is obvious that the gold deposits of the Ghana are derived from the Brazil plateau when the two continents lay side by side.

5. Distribution of Fossils

• When identical species of plants and animals adapted to living on land or in fresh water are found on either side of the marine barriers, a problem arises regarding accounting for such distribution.
• The observations that Lemurs occur in India, Madagascar and Africa led some to consider a contiguous landmass “Lemuria” linking these three landmasses.
• Mesosaurus was a small reptile adapted to shallow brackish water.
• The skeletons of these are found only in two localities: the Southern Cape province of South Africa and Iraver formations of Brazil.
• The two localities presently are 4,800 km apart with an ocean in between them.

Force for Drifting

• Wegener suggested that the movement responsible for the drifting of the continents was caused by pole-fleeing force and tidal force.
• The polar-fleeing force relates to the rotation of the earth.
• The earth is not a perfect sphere; it has a bulge at the equator.
• This bulge is due to the rotation of the earth.
• The second force that was suggested by Wegener—the tidal force—is due to the attraction of the moon and the sun that develops tides in oceanic waters.
• Wegener believed that these forces would become effective when applied over many million years.
• However, most of scholars considered these forces to be totally inadequate.

Post-Drift Studies

• It is interesting to note that for continental drift, most of the evidence was collected from the continental areas in the form of distribution of flora and fauna or deposits like tillite.
• A number of discoveries during the post-war period added new information to geological literature.
• Particularly, the information collected from the ocean floor mapping provided new dimensions for the study of distribution of oceans and continents.

Convectional Current Theory

• Arthur Holmes in 1930s discussed the possibility of convection currents operating in the mantle portion.
• These currents are generated due to radioactive elements causing thermal differences in the mantle portion.
• Holmes argued that there exists a system of such currents in the entire mantle portion.
• This was an attempt to provide an explanation to the issue of force, on the basis of which contemporary scientists discarded the continental drift theory.

Mapping of the Ocean Floor

• Detailed research of the ocean configuration that the ocean floor is not just a vast plain but it is full of relief.
• Expeditions to map the oceanic floor in the post-war period provided a detailed picture of the ocean relief and indicated the existence of submerged mountain ranges as well as deep trenches, mostly located closer to the continent margins.
• The mid-oceanic ridges were found to be most active in terms of volcanic eruptions.
• The dating of the rocks from the oceanic crust revealed the fact that they are much younger than the continental areas.
• Rocks on either side of the crest of oceanic ridges and having equidistant locations from the crest were found to have remarkable similarities both in terms of their constituents and their age.

Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes

CONCEPT OF SEA FLOOR SPREADING

• Hess (1961) to propose his hypothesis, known as the “sea floor spreading”.
• Hess argued that constant eruptions at the crest of oceanic ridges cause the rupture of the oceanic crust and the new lava wedges into it, pushing the oceanic crust on either side.
• The ocean floor thus spreads.
• The younger age of the oceanic crust as well as the fact that the spreading of one ocean does not cause the shrinking of the other, made Hess think about the consumption of the oceanic crust.
• He further maintained that the ocean floor that gets pushed due to volcanic eruptions at the crest sinks down at the oceanic trenches and gets consumed.
• As mentioned above, the post-drift studies provided considerable information that was not available at the time Wegener put forth his concept of continental drift.

Particularly, the mapping of the ocean floor and palaeomagnetic studies of rocks from oceanic regions revealed the following facts-

• It was realised that all along the mid- oceanic ridges, volcanic eruptions are common and they bring huge amounts of lava to the surface in this area.
• The rocks equidistant on either sides of the crest of mid-oceanic ridges show remarkable similarities in terms of period of formation, chemical compositions and magnetic properties.
• Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic ridges have normal polarity and are the youngest.
• The age of the rocks increases as one move away from the crest
• The ocean crust rocks are much younger than the continental rocks.
• The age of rocks in the oceanic crust is nowhere more than 200 million years old.
• Some of the continental rock formations are as old as 3,200 million years.
• The sediments on the ocean floor are unexpectedly very thin. Scientists were expecting, if the ocean floors were as old as the continent, to have a complete sequence of sediments for a period of much longer duration.
• However, nowhere was the sediment column found to be older than 200 million years.
• The deep trenches have deep-seated earthquake occurrences while in the mid- oceanic ridge areas, the quake foci have shallow depths.
• These facts and a detailed analysis of magnetic properties of the rocks on either sides of the mid-oceanic ridge

PLATE TECTONICS

• By, McKenzie and Parker and also Morgan, independently in 1967.
• A tectonic plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a massive, irregularly-shaped slab of solid rock, generally composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere.
• Plates move horizontally over the asthenosphere as rigid units.
• The lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle with its thickness range varying between 5-100 km in oceanic parts and about 200 km in the continental areas.
• A plate may be referred to as the continental plate or oceanic plate depending on which of the two occupy a larger portion of the plate.
• Pacific plate is largely an oceanic plate whereas the Eurasian plate may be called a continental plate.
• The theory of plate tectonics proposes that the earth’s lithosphere is divided into seven major and some minor plates.
• Young Fold Mountain ridges, trenches, and/or faults surround these major plates.

Major plates

1. Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate
2. North American (with western Atlantic floor separated from the South American plate along the Caribbean islands) plate
3. South American (with western Atlantic floor separated from the North American plate along the Caribbean islands) plate
4. Pacific plate
5. India-Australia-New Zealand plate
6. Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
7. Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate.

Minor plates-

1. Cocos plate: Between Central America and Pacific plate
2. Nazca plate: Between South America and Pacific plate
3. Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian landmass
4. Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and Pacific plate
5. Caroline plate: Between the Philippine and Indian plate (North of New Guinea)
6. Fuji plate: North-east of Australia

• These plates have been constantly moving over the globe throughout the history of the earth.
• It is not the continent that moves as believed by Wegener.
• Continents are part of a plate and what moves is the plate.
• Later discoveries reveal that the continental masses, resting on the plates, have been wandering all through the geological period, and Pangaea was a result of converging of different continental masses that were parts of one or the other plates.
• Scientists using the palaeo magnetic data have determined the positions held by each of the present continental landmass in different geological periods.
• Position of the Indian sub- continent (mostly Peninsular India) is traced with the help of the rocks analysed from the Nagpur area.

There are three types of plate boundaries:

1. Divergent Boundaries
2. Convergent Boundaries
3. Transform Boundaries

Divergent Boundaries

• Where new crust is generated as the plates pull away from each other.
• The sites where the plates move away from each other are called spreading sites.
• The best-known example of divergent boundaries is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
• At this, the American Plate(s) is/are separated from the Eurasian and African Plates.

Convergent Boundaries

• Where the crust is destroyed as one plate dived under another. (Nepal quack )
• The location where sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction zone.
• There are three ways in which convergence can occur.
• These are: (i) between an oceanic and continental plate; (ii) between two oceanic plates; and (iii) between two continental plates.

Transform Boundaries

• Where the crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past each other.
• Transform faults are the planes of separation generally perpendicular to the mid- oceanic ridges.
• As the eruptions do not take all along the entire crest at the same time, there is a differential movement of a portion of the plate away from the axis of the earth.
• Also, the rotation of the earth has its effect on the separated blocks of the plate portions.

MOVEMENT OF THE INDIAN PLATE

• The Indian plate includes Peninsular India and the Australian continental portions.
• The subduction zone along the Himalayas forms the northern plate boundary in the form of continent— continent convergence. In the east, it extends through Rakinyoma Mountains of Myanmar towards the island arc along the Java Trench.
• The eastern margin is a spreading site lying to the east of Australia in the form of an oceanic ridge in SW Pacific.
• The Western margin follows Kirthar Mountain of Pakistan.
• It further extends along the Makrana coast and joins the spreading site from the Red Sea rift south- eastward along the Chagos Archipelago.
• The boundary between India and the Antarctic plate is also marked by oceanic ridge (divergent boundary) running in roughly W-E direction and merging into the spreading site, a little south of New Zealand.
• India was a large island situated off the Australian coast, in a vast ocean.

• The Tethys Sea separated it from the Asian continent till about 225 million years ago.
• India is supposed to have started her northward journey about 200 million years ago at the time when Pangaea broke.
• India collided with Asia about 40-50 million years ago causing rapid uplift of the Himalayas.
• About 140 million years before the present, the subcontinent was located as south as 50oS. latitude.
• The two major plates were separated by the Tethys Sea and the Tibetan block was closer to the Asiatic landmass.
• During the movement of the Indian plate towards the Asiatic plate, a major event that occurred was the outpouring of lava and formation of the Deccan Traps.
• This started somewhere around 60 million years ago and continued for a long period of time.
• From 40 million years ago and thereafter, the event of formation of the Himalayas took place.
• Scientists believe that the process is still continuing and the height of the Himalayas is rising even to this date.

Rates of Plate Movement

• The strips of normal and reverse magnetic field that parallel the mid-oceanic ridges help scientists determine the rates of plate movement.
• The Arctic Ridge has the slowest rate (less than 2.5 cm/yr), and the East Pacific Rise near Easter Island, in the South Pacific about 3,400 km west of Chile, has the fastest rate (more than 15 cm/yr).

Force for the Plate Movement

• At the time that Wegener proposed his theory of continental drift, most scientists believed that the earth was a solid, motionless body.
• However, concepts of sea floor spreading and the unified theory of plate tectonics have emphasized that both the surface of the earth and the interior are not static and motionless but are dynamic.
• The mobile rock beneath the rigid plates is believed to be moving in a circular manner.
• The heated material rises to the surface, spreads and begins to cool, and then sinks back into deeper depths.
• This cycle is repeated over and over to generate what scientists call a convection cell or convective flow.
• Heat within the earth comes from two main sources: radioactive decay and residual heat.
• Arthur Holmes first considered this idea in the 1930s, which later influenced Harry Hess’ thinking about seafloor spreading.
• The slow movement of hot, softened mantle that lies below the rigid plates is the driving force behind the plate movement.

Chapter-5
MINERALS AND ROCKS

Minerals-

• Mineral is a naturally occurring organic and inorganic substance, having an orderly atomic structure and a definite chemical composition and physical properties.
• A mineral is composed of two or more elements. But, sometimes single element minerals like sulphur, copper, silver, gold, graphite etc. are found.
• These elements are in solid form in the outer layer of the earth and in hot and molten form in the interior.
• About 98 per cent of the total crust of the earth is composed of eight elements like oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium and the rest is constituted by titanium, hydrogen, phosphorous, manganese, sulphur, carbon, nickel and other
• The basic source of all minerals is the hot magma in the interior of the earth.
• When magma cools, crystals of minerals appear and a systematic series of minerals are formed in sequence to solidify so as to form rocks.
• Minerals such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are organic substances found in solid, liquid and gaseous forms respectively.

Elements By Weight (%)

1. Oxygen 46.60
2. Silicon 27.72
3. Aluminium 8.13
4. Iron 5.00
5. Calcium 3.63
6. Sodium 2.83
7. Potassium 2.59
8. Magnesium 2.09
9. Others 1.41

SOME MAJOR MINERALS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Feldspar

• Silicon and oxygen are common elements in all types of feldspar and sodium, potassium, calcium, aluminium etc. are found in specific feldspar variety.
• Half of the earth’s crust is composed of feldspar.
• It has light cream to salmon pink colour.
• It is used in ceramics and glass making.

Quartz

• It is one of the most important components of sand and granite.
• It consists of silica.
• It is a hard mineral virtually insoluble in water.
• It is white or colourless and used in radio and radar.
• It is one of the most important components of granite.

Pyroxene

• Pyroxene consists of calcium, aluminum, magnesium, iron and silica.
• Pyroxene forms 10 per cent of the earth’s crust.
• It is commonly found in meteorites.
• It is in green or black colour.

Amphibole

• Aluminium, calcium, silica, iron, magnesium are the major elements of amphiboles.
• They form 7 per cent of the earth’s crust.
• It is in green or black colour and is used in asbestos industry.
• Hornblende is another form of amphiboles.

Mica

• It comprises of potassium, aluminium, magnesium, iron, silica etc.
• It forms 4 per cent of the earth’s crust.
• It is commonly found in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
• It is used in electrical instruments.

Olivine

• Magnesium, iron and silica are major elements of olivine.
• It is used in jewellery.
• It is usually a greenish crystal, often found in basaltic rocks.
• Besides these main minerals, other minerals like chlorite, calcite, magnetite, haematite, bauxite and barite are also present in some quantities in the rocks.

Metallic Minerals

These minerals contain metal content and can be sub-divided into three types:

1. Precious metals: gold, silver, platinum etc.
2. Ferrous metals: iron and other metals often mixed with iron to form various kinds of steel.
3. Non-ferrous metals: include metals like copper, lead, zinc, tin, aluminium etc.

Non-Metallic Minerals

• These minerals do not contain metal content. Sulphur, phosphates and nitrates are examples of non-metallic minerals.
• Cement is a mixture of non-metallic minerals.

ROCKS

• The earth’s crust is composed of rocks.
• A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals.
• Rock may be hard or soft and in varied colours.
• For example, granite is hard, soapstone is soft.
• Gabbro is black and quartzite can be milky white.
• Rocks do not have definite composition of mineral constituents.
• Feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals found in rocks.
• Petrology is science of rocks.
• A petrologist studies rocks in all their aspects viz., mineral composition, texture, structure, origin, occurrence, alteration and relationship with other rocks.
• As there is a close relation between rocks and landforms, rocks and soils, a geographer requires basic knowledge of rocks.
• There are many different kinds of rocks which are grouped under three families on the basis of their mode of formation.

They are:

1. Igneous Rocks — solidified from magma and lava;
2. Sedimentary Rocks — the result of deposition of fragments of rocks by exogenous processes;
3. Metamorphic Rocks — formed out of existing rocks undergoing recrystallisation.

Igneous Rocks

• As igneous rocks form out of magma and lava from the interior of the earth, they are known as primary rocks.
• The igneous rocks (Ignis – in Latin means ‘Fire’) are formed when magma cools and solidifies.
• When magma in its upward movement cools and turns into solid form it is called igneous rock.
• The process of cooling and solidification can happen in the earth’s crust or on the surface of the earth.
• Igneous rocks are classified based on texture. Texture depends upon size and arrangement of grains or other physical conditions of the materials.
• If molten material is cooled slowly at great depths, mineral grains may be very large.
• Sudden cooling (at the surface) results in small and smooth grains.
• Intermediate conditions of cooling would result in intermediate sizes of grains making up igneous rocks.
• Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt, volcanic breccia and tuff are some of the examples of igneous rocks

Sedimentary Rocks

• The word ‘sedimentary’ is derived from the Latin word sedimentum, which means settling.
• Rocks (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) of the earth’s surface are exposed to denudational agents, and are broken up into various sizes of fragments.
• Such fragments are transported by different exogenous agencies and deposited.
• These deposits through compaction turn into rocks.
• This process is called lithification.
• In many sedimentary rocks, the layers of deposits retain their characteristics even after lithification.
• Hence, we see a number of layers of varying thickness in sedimentary rocks like sandstone, shale etc.

Depending upon the mode of formation, sedimentary rocks are classified into three major groups:

• mechanically formed — sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess etc. are examples;
• organically formed — geyserites, chalk, limestone, coal etc. are some examples; (iii)chemically formed — chert, limestone, halite, potash etc. are some examples.

Metamorphic Rocks

• The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’.
• These rocks form under the action of pressure, volume and temperature (PVT) changes.
• Metamorphism occurs when rocks are forced down to lower levels by tectonic processes or when molten magma rising through the crust comes in contact with the crustal rocks or the underlying rocks are subjected to great amounts of pressure by overlying rocks.
• Metamorphism is a process by which already consolidated rocks undergo recrystallisation and reorganisation of materials within original rocks.
• Mechanical disruption and reorganisation of the original minerals within rocks due to breaking and crushing without any appreciable chemical changes is called dynamic metamorphism.
• The materials of rocks chemically alter and recrystallise due to thermal metamorphism.
• There are two types of thermal metamorphism — contact metamorphism and regional metamorphism.
• In contact metamorphism the rocks come in contact with hot intruding magma and lava and the rock materials recrystallise under high temperatures.
• Quite often new materials form out of magma or lava are added to the rocks.
• In regional metamorphism, rocks undergo recrystallisation due to deformation caused by tectonic shearing together with high temperature or pressure or both.
• In the process of metamorphism in some rocks grains or minerals get arranged in layers or lines.
• Such an arrangement of minerals or grains in metamorphic rocks is called foliation or lineation.
• Sometimes minerals or materials of different groups are arranged into alternating thin to thick layers appearing in light and dark shades. Such a structure in metamorphic rocks is called banding and rocks displaying banding are called banded rocks.
• Types of metamorphic rocks depend upon original rocks that were subjected to metamorphism.
• Metamorphic rocks are classified into two major groups — foliated rocks and non-foliated rocks.
• Gneissoid, granite, syenite, slate, schist, marble, quartzite etc. are some examples of metamorphic rocks.

ROCK CYCLE

• Rocks do not remain in their original form for long but may undergo transformation.
• Rock cycle is a continuous process through which old rocks are transformed into new ones.
• Igneous rocks are primary rocks and other rocks (sedimentary and metamorphic) form from these primary rocks. Igneous rocks can be changed into metamorphic rocks.
• The fragments derived out of igneous and metamorphic rocks form into sedimentary rocks.
• Sedimentary rocks themselves can turn into fragments and the fragments can be a source for formation of sedimentary rocks.
• The crustal rocks (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary) once formed may be carried down into the mantle (interior of the earth) through subduction process (parts or whole of crustal plates going down under another plate in zones of plate convergence) and the same melt down due to increase in temperature in the interior and turn into molten magma, the original source for igneous rocks

Chapter-6
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES

• The endogenic and exogenic forces causing physical stresses and chemical actions on earth materials and bringing about changes in the configuration of the surface of the earth are known as geomorphic processes.
• Diastrophism and volcanism are endogenic geomorphic processes.
• Weathering, mass wasting, erosion and deposition are exogenic geomorphic processes.
• Any exogenic element of nature (like water, ice, wind, etc.,) capable of acquiring and transporting earth materials can be called a geomorphic agent.
• When these elements of nature become mobile due to gradients, they remove the materials and transport them over slopes and deposit them at lower level.
• Geomorphic processes and geomorphic agents especially exogenic, unless stated separately, are one and the same.
• Gravity besides being a directional force activating all down slope movements of matter also causes stresses on the earth’s materials. Indirect gravitational stresses activate wave and tide induced currents and winds.
• Without gravity and gradients there would be no mobility and hence no erosion, transportation and deposition are possible.
• So, gravitational stresses are as important as the other geomorphic processes.
• Gravity is the force that is keeping us in contact with the surface and it is the force that switches on the movement of all surface material on earth.
• All the movements either within the earth or on the surface of the earth occur due to gradients— from higher levels to lower levels, from high pressure to low pressure areas etc
• The external forces are known as exogenic forces and the internal forces are known as endogenic forces.
• The actions of exogenic forces result in wearing down (degradation) of relief/elevations and filling up (aggradation) of basins/ depressions, on the earth’s surface.
• The phenomenon of wearing down of relief variations of the surface of the earth through erosion is known as gradation.
• The endogenic forces continuously elevate or build up parts of the earth’s surface and hence the exogenic processes fail to even out the relief variations of the surface of the earth

ENDOGENIC PROCESSES

• The energy emanating from within the earth is the main force behind endogenic geomorphic processes.
• This energy is mostly generated by radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction and primordial heat from the origin of the earth.
• This energy due to geothermal gradients and heat flow from within induces diastrophism and volcanism in the lithosphere.
• Due to variations in geothermal gradients and heat flow from within, crustal thickness and strength, the action of endogenic forces are not uniform and hence the tectonically controlled original crustal surface is uneven.

Diastrophism

All processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earth’s crust come under diastrophism.

   They include:

1. orogenic processes involving mountain building through severe folding and affecting long and narrow belts of the earth’s crust;
2. epierogenic processes involving uplift or warping of large parts of the earth’s crust;
3. Earthquakes involving local relatively minor movements; plate tectonics involving horizontal movements of crustal plates.

• Orogeny is a mountain building process whereas epeirogeny is continental building process.
• Through the processes of orogeny, epeirogeny, earthquakes and plate tectonics, there can be faulting and fracturing of the crust.
• All these processes cause pressure, volume and temperature (PVT) changes which in turn induce metamorphism of rocks.

EXOGENIC PROCESSES

• The exogenic processes derive their energy from atmosphere determined by the ultimate energy from the sun and also the gradients created by tectonic factors processes and their respective driving forces.
• Temperature and precipitation are the two important climatic elements that control various processes.
• All the exogenic geomorphic processes are covered under a general term, denudation. The word ‘denude’ means to strip off or to uncover.
• Weathering, mass wasting/movements, erosion and transportation are included in denudation
• Gravitational force acts upon all earth materials having a sloping surface and tend to produce movement of matter in down slope direction. Force applied per unit area is called stress.
• Stress is produced in a solid by pushing or pulling. This induces deformation.
• Forces acting along the faces of earth materials are shear stresses (separating forces).
• It is this stress that breaks rocks and other earth materials.
• The shear stresses result in angular displacement or slippage.
• Molecular stresses that may be caused by a number of factors amongst which temperature changes, crystallisation and melting are the most common
• Chemical processes normally lead to loosening of bonds between grains, dissolving of soluble minerals or cementing materials
• Thus, the basic reason that leads to weathering, mass movements, and erosion is development of stresses in the body of the earth materials.
• Different types of rocks with differences in their structure offer varying resistances to various geomorphic processes

Volcanism

Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock (magma) onto or toward the earth’s surface and also formation of many intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms.

WEATHERING

• Weathering is action of elements of weather and climate over earth materials.
• There are a number of processes within weathering which act either individually or together to affect the earth materials in order to reduce them to fragmental state.
• Weathering is defined as mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks through the actions of various elements of weather and climate.
• As very little or no motion of materials takes place in weathering, it is an in-situ or on-site process.
• Weathering processes are conditioned by many complex geological, climatic, topographic and vegetative factors. Climate is of particular importance. Not only weathering processes differ from climate to climate, but also the depth of the weathering mantle

There are three major groups of weathering processes:

Chemical; (ii) physical or mechanical; (iii) biological weathering processes

Chemical Weathering Processes

• A group of weathering processes viz; solution, carbonation, hydration, oxidation and reduction act on the rocks to decompose, dissolve or reduce them to a fine clastic state through chemical reactions by oxygen, surface and/or soil water and other acids.
• Water and air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) along with heat must be present to speed up all chemical reactions
• Solution When something is dissolved in water or acids, the water or acid with dissolved contents is called solution.
• This process involves removal of solids in solution and depends upon solubility of a mineral in water or weak acids.
• On coming in contact with water many solids disintegrate and mix up as suspension in water.
• Soluble rock forming minerals like nitrates, sulphates, and potassium etc. are affected by this process.
• So, these minerals are easily leached out without leaving any residue in rainy climates and accumulate in dry regions. Minerals like calcium carbonate and calcium magnesium bicarbonate present in limestones are soluble in water containing carbonic acid (formed with the addition of carbon dioxide in water), and are carried away in water as solution.
• Carbon dioxide produced by decaying organic matter along with soil water greatly aids in this reaction.
• Common salt (sodium chloride) is also a rock forming mineral and is susceptible to this process of solution.

Physical Weathering Processes

• Physical or mechanical weathering processes depend on some applied forces.

The applied forces could be:

1. gravitational forces such as over burden pressure, load and shearing stress;
2. expansion forces due to temperature changes, crystal growth or animal activity;
3. Water pressures controlled by wetting and drying cycles

• Many of these forces are applied both at the surface and within different earth materials leading to rock fracture.
• Most of the physical weathering processes are caused by thermal expansion and pressure release.

SPECIAL EFFECTS OF WEATHERING

Exfoliation-

• Exfoliation is a result but not a process. Flaking off of more or less curved sheets of shells from over rocks or bedrock results in smooth and rounded surfaces
• Exfoliation can occur due to expansion and contraction induced by temperature changes.
• Exfoliation domes and tors result due to unloading and thermal expansion respectively

SIGNIFICANCE OF WEATHERING

• Weathering processes are responsible for breaking down the rocks into smaller fragments and preparing the way for formation of not only regolith and soils, but also erosion and mass movements.
• Biomes and bio- diversity is basically a result of forests (vegetation) and forests depend upon the depth of weathering mantles.
• Erosion cannot be significant if the rocks are not weathered.
• That means, weathering aids mass wasting, erosion and reduction of relief and changes in landforms are a consequence of erosion.
• Weathering of rocks and deposits helps in the enrichment and concentrations of certain valuable ores of iron, manganese, aluminium, copper etc., which are of great importance for the national economy.
• Weathering is an important process in the formation of soils.
• When rocks undergo weathering, some materials are removed through chemical or physical leaching by groundwater and thereby the concentration of remaining (valuable) materials increases.
• Without such a weathering taking place, the concentration of the same valuable material may not be sufficient and economically viable to exploit, process and refine. This is what is called enrichment.
• Several activating causes precede mass movements.

They are:

1. Removal of support from below to materials above through natural or artificial means;
2. Increase in gradient and height of slopes;
3. Overloading through addition of materials naturally or by artificial filling;
4. Overloading due to heavy rainfall, saturation and lubrication of slope materials;
5. Removal of material or load from over the original slope surfaces; (vi) occurrence of earthquakes, explosions or machinery;
6. Excessive natural seepage;
7. Heavy drawdown of water from lakes, reservoirs and rivers leading to slow outflow of water from under the slopes or river banks;
8. Indis- criminate removal of natural vegetation.

Heave (heaving up of soils due to frost growth and other causes), flow and slide are the three forms of movements.

The erosion

• Can be defined as “application of the kinetic energy associated with the agent to the surface of the land along which it moves”
• Kinetic energy is computed as KE = 1/2 mv2 where ‘m’ is the mass and ‘v’ is the velocity.
• The work of the other two agents of erosion waves and ground water is not controlled by climate.
• In case of waves it is the location along the interface of litho and hydro sphere coastal region — that will determine the work of waves, whereas the work of ground water is determined more by the litho logical character of the region.
• If the rocks are permeable and soluble and water is available only then Karst topography develops.

Deposition

• It is a consequence of erosion.
• The erosional agents lose their velocity and hence energy on gentler slopes and the materials carried by them start to settle themselves.
• In other words, deposition is not actually the work of any agent.

Carbonation

• Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals and is a common process helping the breaking down of feldspars and carbonate minerals.
• Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and soil air is absorbed by water, to form carbonic acid that acts as a weak acid.
• Calcium carbonates and magnesium carbonates are dissolved in carbonic acid and are removed in a solution without leaving any residue resulting in cave formation.

Hydration

• Hydration is the chemical addition of water. Minerals take up water and expand; this expansion causes an increase in the volume of the material itself or rock.
• Calcium sulphate takes in water and turns to gypsum, which is more unstable than calcium sulphate.
• This process is reversible and long, continued repetition of this process causes fatigue in the rocks and may lead to their disintegration.

Oxidation and Reduction

• In weathering, oxidation means a combination of a mineral with oxygen to form oxides or hydroxides.
• The minerals most commonly involved in this process are iron, manganese, sulphur etc.
• In the process of oxidation rock breakdown occurs due to the disturbance caused by addition of oxygen. Red colour of iron upon oxidation turns to brown or yellow.
• When oxidised minerals are placed in an environment where oxygen is absent, reduction takes place.
• Such conditions exist usually below the water table, in areas of stagnant water and waterlogged ground.
• Red colour of iron upon reduction turns to greenish or bluish grey.

Unloading and Expansion

• Removal of overlying rock load because of continued erosion causes vertical pressure release with the result that the upper layers of the rock expand producing disintegration of rock masses.
• Fractures will develop roughly parallel to the ground surface. In areas of curved ground surface, arched fractures tend to produce massive sheets or exfoliation slabs of rock.
• Exfoliation sheets resulting from expansion due to unloading and pressure release may measure hundreds or even thousands of metres in horizontal extent.
• Large, smooth rounded domes called exfoliation domes

Temperature Changes and Expansion

• Various minerals in rocks possess their own limits of expansion and contraction.
• With rise in temperature, every mineral expands and pushes against its neighbour and as temperature falls, a corresponding contraction takes place.
• Because of diurnal changes in the temperatures, this internal movement among the mineral grains of the superficial layers of rocks takes place regularly.
• This process is most effective in dry climates and high elevations where diurnal temperature changes are drastic.

Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging

• Frost weathering occurs due to growth of ice within pores and cracks of rocks during repeated cycles of freezing and melting.
• This process is most effective at high elevations in mid-latitudes where freezing and melting is often repeated.
• Glacial areas are subject to frost wedging daily.
• In this process, the rate of freezing is important. Rapid freezing of water causes its sudden expansion and high pressure.
• The resulting expansion affects joints, cracks and small inter granular fractures to become wider and wider till the rock breaks apart.

Salt Weathering-

• Salts in rocks expand due to thermal action, hydration and crystallisation.
• Many salts like calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium and barium have a tendency to expand.
• Expansion of these salts depends on temperature and their thermal properties. High temperature ranges between 30 and 50oC of surface temperatures in deserts favour such salt expansion.
• Salt crystals in near-surface pores cause splitting of individual grains within rocks, which eventually fall off.
• This process of falling off of individual grains may result in granular disintegration or granular foliation cause splitting of individual grains within rocks, which eventually fall off.
• This process of falling off of individual grains may result in granular disintegration or granular foliation.
• Salt crystallisation is most effective of all salt-weathering processes
• With salt crystal growth, chalk breaks down most readily, followed by limestone, sandstone, shale, gneiss and granite etc

BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY AND WEATHERING

• Biological weathering is contribution to or removal of minerals and ions from the weathering environment and physical changes due to growth or movement of organisms.
• Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms, termites, rodents etc., help in exposing the new surfaces to chemical attack and assists in the penetration of moisture and air.
• Human beings by disturbing vegetation, ploughing and cultivating soils, also help in mixing and creating new contacts between air, water and minerals in the earth materials.
• Decaying plant and animal matter help in the production of humid, carbonic and other acids which enhance decay and solubility of some elements.
• Plant roots exert a tremendous pressure on the earth materials mechanically breaking them apart.

MASS MOVEMENTS

• These movements transfer the mass of rock debris down the slopes under the direct influence of gravity.
• That means, air, water or ice does not carry debris with them from place to place but on the other hand the debris may carry with it air, water or ice.
• Gravity exerts its force on all matter, both bedrock and the products of weathering.
• So, weathering is not a pre-requisite for mass movement though it aids mass movements.
• Mass movements are very active over weathered slopes rather than over un- weathered materials.
• Mass movements do not come under erosion though there is a shift (aided by gravity) of materials from one place to another.

Slow mass Movements

• Creep is one type under this category which can occur on moderately steep, soil covered slopes.
• Movement of materials is extremely slow and imperceptible except through extended observation.
• Materials involved can be soil or rock debris.
• fence posts, telephone poles lean down slope from their vertical position that is due to the creep effect.
• Depending upon the type of material involved, several types of creep viz., soil creep, talus creep, rock creep, rock-glacier creep etc., can be identified.
• Also included in this group is solifluction which involves slow down slope flowing soil mass or fine grained rock debris saturated or lubricated with water.
• This process is quite common in moist temperate areas where surface melting of deeply frozen ground and long continued rain respectively, occur frequently.
• When the upper portions get saturated and when the lower parts are impervious to water percolation, flowing occurs in the upper parts.

Rapid Movements

• These movements are mostly prevalent in humid climatic regions and occur over gentle to steep slopes.
• Movement of water-saturated clayey or silty earth materials down low-angle terraces or hillsides is known as earth flow.
• Quite often, the materials slump making step- like terraces and leaving arcuate scarps at their heads and an accumulation bulge at the toe.
• When slopes are steeper, even the bedrock especially of soft sedimentary rocks like shale or deeply weathered igneous rock may slide down slope.
• Mudflow-In the absence of vegetation cover and with heavy rainfall, thick layers of weathered materials get saturated with water and either slowly or rapidly flow down along definite channels.
• It looks like a stream of mud within a valley. When the mudflows emerge out of channels onto the piedmont or plains, they can be very destructive engulfing roads, bridges and houses.
• Mudflows occur frequently on the slopes of erupting or recently erupted volcanoes.
• Volcanic ash, dust and other fragments turn into mud due to heavy rains and flow down as tongues or streams of mud causing great destruction to human habitations.
• Debris avalanche, which is more characteristic of humid regions with or without vegetation cover and occurs in narrow tracks on steep slopes. This debris avalanche can be much faster than the mudflow.
• Debris avalanche is similar to snow avalanche.
• Landslides -These are relatively rapid and perceptible movements. The materials involved are relatively dry.
• The size and shape of the detached mass depends on the nature of discontinuities in the rock, the degree of weathering and the steepness of the slope.
• Depending upon the type of movement of materials several types are identified in this category.
• Slump is slipping of one or several units of rock debris with a backward rotation with respect to the slope over which the movement takes place
• Rapid rolling or sliding of earth debris without backward rotation of mass is known as debris slide.
• Debris fall is nearly a free fall of earth debris from a vertical or overhanging face.
• Sliding of individual rock masses down bedding, joint or fault surfaces is rockslide.
• Over steep slopes, rock sliding is very fast and destructive.
• Rock fall is free falling of rock blocks over any steep slope keeping itself away from the slope.
• Rock falls occur from the superficial layers of the rock face, an occurrence that distinguishes it from rockslide which affects materials up to a substantial depth.

In our country, debris avalanches and landslides occur very frequently in the Himalayas.

There are many reasons for this-

• Himalayas are tectonically active.
• They are mostly made up of sedimentary rocks and unconsolidated and semi-consolidated deposits.
• The slopes are very steep.
• Compared to the Himalayas, the Nilgiris bordering Tamil nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and the Western Ghats along the west coast are relatively tectonically stable and are mostly made up of very hard rocks;
• Many slopes are steeper with almost vertical cliffs and escarpments in the Western Ghats and Nilgiris.
• Mechanical weathering due to temperature changes and ranges is pronounced.
• They receive heavy amounts of rainfall over short periods
• The coarser materials get deposited first and finer ones later.
• By deposition depressions get filled up.
• The same erosional agents viz., running water, glaciers, wind, waves and groundwater act as aggradational or depositional agents also.

SOIL FORMATION

Five basic factors control the formation of soils:

1. parent material;
2. topography;
3. climate;
4. biological activity;
5. Time.

Parent Material

• Parent material is a passive control factor in soil formation.
• Parent materials can be any in- situ or on-site weathered rock debris (residual soils) or transported deposits (transported soils).
• Soil formation depends upon the texture (sizes of debris) and structure (disposition of individual grains/particles of debris) as well as the mineral and chemical composition of the rock debris/deposits.
• Nature and rate of weathering and depth of weathering mantle are important considerations under parent materials.
• There may be differences in soil over similar bedrock and dissimilar bedrocks may have similar soils above them.
• But when soils are very young and have not matured these show strong links with the type of parent rock.
• Also, in case of some limestone areas, where the weathering processes are specific and peculiar, soils will show clear relation with the parent rock.

Topography

• Topography like parent materials is another passive control factor.
• The influence of topography is felt through the amount of exposure of a surface covered by parent materials to sunlight and the amount of surface and sub-surface drainage over and through the parent materials.
• Soils will be thin on steep slopes and thick over flat upland areas.
• Over gentle slopes where erosion is slow and percolation of water is good, soil formation is very favourable.
• Soils over flat areas may develop a thick layer of clay with good accumulation of organic matter giving the soil dark colour.
• In middle latitudes, the south facing slopes exposed to sunlight have different conditions of vegetation and soils and the north facing slopes with cool, moist conditions have some other soils and vegetation.

Climate

• The climatic elements involved in soil development are :
• Moisture in terms of its intensity, frequency and duration of precipitation - evaporation and humidity;
• Temperature in terms of seasonal and diurnal variations.
• Precipitation gives soil its moisture content which makes the chemical and biological activities possible.
• Excess of water helps in the downward transportation of soil components through the soil (eluviation) and deposits the same down below (illuviation).
• In climates like wet equatorial rainy areas with high rainfall, not only calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium etc. but also a major part of silica is removed from the soil.
• Removal of silica from the soil is known as desilication.
• In dry climates, because of high temperature, evaporation exceeds precipitation and hence ground water is brought up to the surface by capillary action and in the process the water evaporates leaving behind salts in the soil.
• Such salts form into a crust in the soil known as hardpans. In tropical climates and in areas with intermediate precipitation conditions, calcium carbonate nodules (kanker) are formed.
• Temperature acts in two ways — increasing or reducing chemical and biological activity.
• Chemical activity is increased in higher temperatures, reduced in cooler temperatures (with an exception of carbonation) and stops in freezing conditions.
• That is why, tropical soils with higher temperatures show deeper profiles and in the frozen tundra regions soils contain largely mechanically broken materials.

Biological Activity-

• The vegetative cover and organisms that occupy the parent materials from the beginning and also at later stages help in adding organic matter, moisture retention, nitrogen etc.
• Dead plants provide humus, the finely divided organic matter of the soil.
• Some organic acids which form during humification aid in decomposing the minerals of the soil parent materials.
• Intensity of bacterial activity shows up differences between soils of cold and warm climates.
• Humus accumulates in cold climates as bacterial growth is slow.
• With un- decomposed organic matter because of low bacterial activity, layers of peat develop in sub-arctic and k6tundra climates.
• In humid tropical and equatorial climates, bacterial growth and action is intense and dead vegetation is rapidly oxidised leaving very low humus content in the soil.
• Further, bacteria and other soil organisms take gaseous nitrogen from the air and convert it into a chemical form that can be used by plants.
• This process is known as nitrogen fixation.
• Rhizobium, a type of bacteria, lives in the root nodules of leguminous plants and fixes nitrogen beneficial to the host plant.
• The influence of large animals like ants, termites, earthworms, rodents etc., is mechanical, but, it is nevertheless important in soil formation as they rework the soil up and down.
• In case of earthworms, as they feed on soil, the texture and chemistry of the soil that comes out of their body changes.

Time

• Time is the third important controlling factor in soil formation.
• The length of time the soil forming processes operate, determines maturation of soils and profile development.
• A soil becomes mature when all soil-forming processes act for a sufficiently long time developing a profile.
• Soils developing from recently deposited alluvium or glacial till are considered young and they exhibit no horizons or only poorly developed horizons.
• No specific length of time in absolute terms can be fixed for soils to develop and mature

Chapter-7
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION

Landform-

Each landform has its own physical shape, size, materials and is a result of the action of certain geomorphic processes and agent

Several related landforms together make up landscapes, (large tracts of earth’s surface) geomorphic agents are capable of erosion and deposition, two sets —

1-erosional or destructional and
2- Depositional or constructional — of landforms are produced by them.

Varieties of landforms develop by the action of each of the geomorphic agents depending upon especially the type and structure i.e. folds, faults, joints, fractures, hardness and softness, permeability and impermeability, etc.

There are some other independent controls like

1. Stability of sea level;
2. Tectonic stability of landmasses;
3. Climate, which influence the evolution of landforms.

Any disturbance in any of these three controlling factors can upset the systematic and sequential stages in the development and evolution of landforms

RUNNING WATER

• In humid regions

There are two components of running water.

1. Overland flow on general land surface as a sheet.
2. linear flow as streams and rivers in valleys

• Most of the erosional landforms made by running water are associated with vigorous and youthful rivers flowing over steep gradients.
• With time, stream channels over steep gradients turn gentler due to continued erosion, and as a consequence, lose their velocity, facilitating active deposition.
• The gentler the river channels in gradient or slope, the greater is the deposition.
• When the stream beds turn gentler due to continued erosion, downward cutting becomes less dominant and lateral erosion of banks increases and as a consequence the hills and valleys are reduced to plains.

Overland flow - causes sheet erosion-

• Depending upon irregularities of the land surface, the overland flow may concentrate into narrow to wide paths.
• Because of the sheer friction of the column of flowing water, minor or major quantities of materials from the surface of the land are removed in the direction of flow and gradually small and narrow rills will form.
• These rills will gradually develop into long and wide gullies; the gullies will further deepen, widen, lengthen and unite to give rise to a network of valleys
• The divides between drainage basins are likewise lowered until they are almost completely flattened leaving finally, lowland of faint relief with some low resistant remnants called monadnocks standing out here and there.
• This type of plain forming as a result of stream erosion is called a peneplain (an almost plain.

Youth

• Streams are few during this stage with poor integration and flow over original slopes showing shallow V-shaped valleys with no floodplains or with very narrow floodplains along trunk streams.
• Streams divides are broad and flat with marshes, swamp and lakes.
• Meanders if present develop over these broad upland surfaces.
• These meanders may eventually entrench themselves into the uplands.
• Waterfalls and rapids may exist where local hard rock bodies are exposed

Mature

• During this stage streams are plenty with good integration.
• The valleys are still V-shaped but deep; trunk streams are broad enough to have wider floodplains within which streams may flow in meanders confined within the valley.
• The flat and broad inter stream areas and swamps and marshes of youth disappear and the stream divides turn sharp.
• Waterfalls and rapids disappear

Old

• Smaller tributaries during old age are few with gentle gradients.
• Streams meander freely over vast floodplains showing natural levees, oxbow lakes, etc.
• Divides are broad and flat with lakes, swamps and marshes. Most of the landscape is at or slightly above sea level

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS-

1. Valleys

• Valleys start as small and narrow rills; the rills will gradually develop into long and wide gullies;
• The gullies will further deepen, widen and lengthen to give rise to valleys.
• Depending upon dimensions and shape, many types of valleys like V-shaped valley, gorge, canyon, etc. can be recognised.
• A gorge is a deep valley with very steep to straight sides and a canyon is characterised by steep step-like side slopes and may be as deep as a gorge.
• A gorge is almost equal in width at its top as well as its bottom.
• In contrast, a canyons wider at its top than at its bottom. In fact, a canyon is a variant of gorge.
• Valley types depend upon the type and structure of rocks in which they form. For example, canyons commonly form in horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks and gorges form in hard rocks

2. Potholes and Plunge Pools

• Over the rocky beds of hill-streams more or less circular depressions called potholes form because of stream erosion aided by the abrasion of rock fragments.
• Once a small and shallow depression forms, pebbles and boulders get collected in those depressions and get rotated by flowing water and consequently the depressions grow in dimensions.
• A series of such depressions eventually join and the stream valley gets deepened.
• At the foot of waterfalls also, large potholes, quite deep and wide, form because of the sheer impact of water and rotation of boulders. Such large and deep holes at the base of waterfalls are called plunge pools.
• These pools also help in the deepening of valleys. Waterfalls are also transitory like any other landform and will recede gradually and bring the floor of the valley above waterfalls to the level below.

3. Incised or Entrenched Meanders

• In streams that flow rapidly over steep gradients, normally erosion is concentrated on the bottom of the stream channel.
• Also, in the case of steep gradient streams, lateral erosion on the sides of the valleys is not much when compared to the streams flowing on low and gentle slopes.
• Because of active lateral erosion, streams flowing over gentle slopes, develop sinuous or meandering courses.
• It is common to find meandering courses over floodplains and delta plains where stream gradients are very gentle.
• But very deep and wide meanders can also be found cut in hard rocks. Such meanders are called incised or entrenched meanders.
• Meander loops develop over original gentle surfaces in the initial stages of development of streams and the same loops get entrenched into the rocks normally due to erosion or slow, continued uplift of the land over which they start.
• They widen and deepen over time and can be found as deep gorges and canyons in hard rock areas.
• They give an indication on the status of original land surfaces over which streams have developed.

4. River Terraces

• River terraces are surfaces marking old valley floor or floodplain levels.
• They may be bedrock surfaces without any alluvial cover or alluvial terraces consisting of stream deposits.
• River terraces are basically products of erosion as they result due to vertical erosion by the stream into its own depositional floodplain.
• The river terraces may occur at the same elevation on either side of the rivers in which case they are called paired terraces
• When a terrace is present only on one side of the stream and with none on the other side or one at quite a different elevation on the other side, the terraces are called unpaired terraces.
• Unpaired terraces are typical in areas of slow uplift of land or where the water column changes are not uniform along both the banks.

The terraces may result due to

1. receding water after a peak flow;
2. change in hydrological regime due to climatic changes;
3. tectonic uplift of land;
4. sea level changes in case of rivers closer to the sea

DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS

1- Alluvial Fans-

• Alluvial fans are formed when streams flowing from higher levels break into foot slope plains of low gradient.
• Normally very coarse load is carried by streams flowing over mountain slopes.
• This load becomes too heavy for the streams to be carried over gentler gradients and gets dumped and spread as a broad low to high cone shaped deposit called alluvial fan.
• Usually, the streams which flow over fans are not confined to their original channels for long and shift their position across the fan forming many channels called distributaries.
• Alluvial fans in humid areas show normally low cones with gentle slope from head to toe and they appear as high cones with steep slope in arid and semi-arid climates

2 –Deltas

• Deltas are like alluvial fans but develop at a different location.
• The load carried by the rivers is dumped and spread into the sea. If this load is not carried away far into the sea or distributed along the coast, it spreads and accumulates as a low cone.
• Unlike in alluvial fans, the deposits making up deltas are very well sorted with clear stratification.
• The coarsest materials settle out first and the finer fractions like silts and clays are carried out into the sea.
• As the delta grows, the river distributaries continue to increase in length and delta continues to build up into the sea.

3-Floodplains, Natural Levees and Point Bars

• Deposition develops a floodplain just as erosion makes valleys.
• Floodplain is a major landform of river deposition.
• Large sized materials are deposited first when stream channel breaks into a gentle slope.
• Thus, normally, fine sized materials like sand, silt and clay are carried by relatively slow moving waters in gentler channels usually found in the plains and deposited over the bed and when the waters spill over the banks during flooding above the bed.
• A river bed made of river deposits is the active floodplain. The floodplain above the bank is inactive floodplain.
• Inactive floodplain above the banks basically contain two types of deposits — flood deposits and channel deposits.
• The flood deposits of spilled waters carry relatively finer materials like silt and clay.
• The flood plains in a delta are called delta plains.
• Natural levees - are found along the banks of large rivers. They are low, linear and parallel ridges of coarse deposits along the banks of rivers, quite often cut into individual mounds.
• During flooding as the water spills over the bank, the velocity of the water comes down and large sized and high specific gravity materials get dumped in the immediate vicinity of the bank as ridges. They are high nearer the banks and slope gently away from the river.
• The levee deposits are coarser than the deposits spread by flood waters away from the river.
• When rivers shift laterally, a series of natural levees can form.
• Point bars are also known as meander bars.-They are found on the convex side of meanders of large rivers and are sediments deposited in a linear fashion by flowing waters along the bank.
• Almost uniform in profile and in width and contain mixed sizes of sediments.
• If there more than one ridge, narrow and elongated depressions are found in between the point bars.
• As the rivers build the point bars on the convex side, the bank on the concave side will erode actively.

4-Meanders

• In large flood and delta plains, rivers rarely flow in straight courses.
• Loop-like channel patterns called meanders develop over flood and delta plains
• Meander is not a landform but is only a type of channel pattern.

This is because of

• Propensity of water flowing over very gentle gradients to work laterally on the banks;
• unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits making up the banks with many irregularities which can be used by water exerting pressure laterally;
• coriolis force acting on the fluid water deflecting it like it deflects the wind.
• When the gradient of the channel becomes extremely low, water flows leisurely and starts working laterally.
• Slight irregularities along the banks slowly get transformed into a small curvature in the banks;
• the curvature deepens due to deposition on the inside of the curve and erosion along the bank on the outside.
• Normally, in meanders of large rivers, there is active deposition along the convex bank and undercutting along the concave bank.
• The concave bank is known as cut-off bank which shows up as a steep scarp and the convex bank presents a long, gentle profile and is known as slip-off bank
• As meanders grow into deep loops, the same may get cut-off due to erosion at the inflection points and are left as ox-bow lakes

5. Braided Channels

• When rivers carry coarse material, there can be selective deposition of coarser materials causing formation of a central bar which diverts the flow towards the banks; and this flow increases lateral erosion on the banks.
• As the valley widens, the water column is reduced and more and more materials get deposited as islands and lateral bars developing a number of separate channels of water flow.
• Deposition and lateral erosion of banks are essential for the formation of braided pattern.
• Or, alternatively, when discharge is less and load is more in the valley, channel bars and islands of sand, gravel and pebbles develop on the floor of the channel and the water flow is divided into multiple threads.
• These thread-like streams of water rejoin and subdivide repeatedly to give a typical braided pattern

6. GROUNDWATER

• The surface water percolates well when the rocks are permeable, thinly bedded and highly jointed and cracked.
• After vertically going down to some depth, the water under the ground flows horizontally through the bedding planes, joints or through the materials themselves.
• It is this downward and horizontal movement of water which causes the rocks to erode.
• Physical or mechanical removal of materials by moving groundwater is insignificant in developing landforms.
• That is why; the results of the work of groundwater cannot be seen in all types of rocks. Rocks like limestones or dolomites rich in calcium carbonate, the surface water as well as groundwater through the chemical process of solution and precipitation deposition develop varieties of landforms.
• Any limestone or dolomitic region showing typical landforms produced by the action of groundwater through the processes of solution and deposition is called Karst topography after the typical topography developed in limestone rocks of Karst region in the Balkans adjacent to Adriatic sea.
• The Karst topography is also characterised by erosional and depositional landforms

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS

Pools, Sinkholes, Lapies and Limestone Pavements

• Small to medium sized round to sub-rounded shallow depressions called swallow holes form on the surface of limestones through solution.
• Sinkholes are very common in limestone/karst areas.
• A sinkhole is an opening more or less circular at the top and funnel-shaped towards the bottom with sizes varying in area from a few sq. m to a hectare and with depth from a less than half a metre to thirty metres or more.
• if the bottom of a sinkhole forms the roof of a void or cave underground, it might collapse leaving a large hole opening into a cave or a void below (collapse sinks).
• The term doline is sometimes used to refer the collapse sinks
• When sink holes and dolines join together because of slumping of materials along their margins or due to roof collapse of caves, long, narrow to wide trenches called valley sinks or Uvalas form.

Caves

• In areas where there are alternating beds of rocks (shales, sandstones, quartzites) with limestones or dolomites in between or in areas where limestones are dense, massive and occurring as thick beds, cave formation is prominent.
• Water percolates down either through the materials or through cracks and joints and moves horizontally along bedding planes.
• It is along these bedding planes that the limestone dissolves and long and narrow to wide gaps called caves result.
• There can be a maze of caves at different elevations depending upon the limestone beds and intervening rocks.
• Caves normally have an opening through which cave streams are discharged.
• Caves having openings at both the ends are called tunnels

Depositional Landforms

• Many depositional forms develop within the limestone caves.
• The chief chemical in limestone is calcium carbonate which is easily soluble in carbonated water (carbon dioxide absorbed rainwater).
• This calcium carbonate is deposited when the water carrying it in solution evaporates or loses its carbon dioxide as it trickles over rough rock surfaces.

Stalactites, Stalagmites and Pillars

• Stalactites hang as icicles of different diameters.
• Normally they are broad at their bases and taper towards the free ends showing up in a variety of forms.
• Stalagmites rise up from the floor of the caves.
• In fact, stalagmites form due to dripping water from the surface or through the thin pipe, of the stalactite, immediately below it
• Stalagmites may take the shape of a column, a disc, with either a smooth, rounded bulging end or a miniature crater like depression.
• The stalagmite and stalactites eventually fuse to give rise to columns and pillars of different diameters

GLACIERS

• Masses of ice moving as sheets over the land (continental glacier or piedmont glacier if a vast sheet of ice is spread over the plains at the foot of mountains) or as linear flows down the slopes of mountains in broad trough-like valleys (mountain and valley glaciers) are called glaciers
• The movement of glaciers is slow. Glaciers move basically because of the force of gravity
• Erosion by glaciers is tremendous because of friction caused by sheer weight of the ice.
• The material plucked from the land by glaciers (usually large-sized angular blocks and fragments) get dragged along the floors or sides of the valleys and cause great damage through abrasion and plucking.
• Glaciers can cause significant damage to even un-weathered rocks and can reduce high mountains into low hills and plains.
• Moving down the slopes and valleys in Himalayas. Higher reaches of Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir, are places to see some of them.
• River Bhagirathi is basically fed by melt waters from under the snout (Gaumukh) of the Gangotri glacier. In fact, Alkapuri glacier feeds waters to Alaknanda river. Rivers Alaknanda and Bhagirathi join to make river Ganga near Deoprayag.

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS

Cirque

• Cirques are the most common of landforms in glaciated mountains. The cirques quite often are found at the heads of glacial valleys.
• The accumulated ice cuts these cirques while moving down the mountain tops.
• They are deep, long and wide troughs or basins with very steep concave to vertically dropping high walls at its head as well as sides.
• A lake of water can be seen quite often within the cirques after the glacier disappears.
• Such lakes are called cirque or tarn lakes.
• There can be two or more cirques one leading into another down below in a stepped sequence.

Horns and Serrated Ridges

• Horns form through head ward erosion of the cirque walls.
• If three or more radiating glaciers cut headward until their cirques meet, high, sharp pointed and steep sided peaks called horns form.
• The divides between cirque side walls or head walls get narrow because of progressive erosion and turn into serrated or saw-toothed ridges sometimes referred to as arêtes with very sharp crest and a zig-zag outline.
• The highest peak in the Alps, Matterhorn and the highest peak in the Himalayas, Everest are in fact horns formed through headward erosion of radiating cirques.

Glacial Valleys/Troughs

• Glaciated valleys are trough-like and U-shaped with broad floors and relatively smooth, and steep sides.
• The valleys may contain littered debris or debris shaped as moraines with swampy appearance.
• There can be hanging valleys at an elevation on one or both sides of the main glacial valley.
• The faces of divides or spurs of such hanging valleys opening into main glacial valleys are quite often truncated to give them an appearance like triangular facets.
• Very deep glacial troughs filled with sea water and making up shorelines (in high latitudes) are called fjords/fiords.

Depositional Landforms

• The unasserted coarse and fine debris dropped by the melting glaciers is called glacial till.
• Most of the rock fragments in till are angular to sub- angular in form.
• Streams form by melting ice at the bottom, sides or lower ends of glaciers
• Some amount of rock debris small enough to be carried by such melt-water streams is washed down and deposited.
• Such glacio- fluvial deposits are called outwash deposits.
• Unlike till deposits, the outwash deposits are roughly stratified and assorted.
• The rock fragments in outwash deposits are somewhat rounded at their edges

Moraines

• Are long ridges of deposits of glacial till
• Terminal moraines are long ridges of debris deposited at the end (toe) of the glaciers.
• Lateral moraines form along the sides parallel to the glacial valleys.
• The lateral moraines may join a terminal moraine forming a horse-shoe shaped ridge.
• There can be many lateral moraines on either side in a glacial valley.
• These moraines partly or fully owe their origin to glacio- fluvial waters pushing up materials to the sides of glaciers.
• Many valley glaciers retreating rapidly leave an irregular sheet of till over their valley floors.
• Such deposits varying greatly in thickness and in surface topography are called ground moraines.
• The moraine in the centre of the glacial valley flanked by lateral moraines is called medial moraine.
• They are imperfectly formed as compared to lateral moraines. Sometimes medial moraines are indistinguishable from ground moraines.

Eskers

• When glaciers melt in summer, the water flows on the surface of the ice or seeps down along the margins or even moves through holes in the ice.
• These waters accumulate beneath the glacier and flow like streams in a channel beneath the ice.
• Such streams flow over the ground (not in a valley cut in the ground) with ice forming its banks.
• Very coarse materials like boulders and blocks along with some minor fractions of rock debris carried into this stream settle in the valley of ice b

Outwash Plains

The plains at the foot of the glacial mountains or beyond the limits of continental ice sheets are covered with glacio-fluvial deposits in the form of broad flat alluvial fans which may join to form outwash plains of gravel, silt, sand and clay.

Drumlins

• Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge-like features composed mainly of glacial till with some masses of gravel and sand.
• The long axes of drumlins are parallel to the direction of ice movement.
• They may measure up to 1 km in length and 30 m or so in height.
• One end of the drumlins facing the glacier called the stoss end is blunter and steeper than the other end called tail.
• The drumlins form due to dumping of rock debris beneath heavily loaded ice through fissures in the glacier.
• The stoss end gets blunted due to pushing by moving ice.
• Drumlins give an indication of direction of glacier movement.

WAVES AND CURRENTS

• When waves break, the water is thrown with great force onto the shore, and simultaneously, there is a great churning of sediments on the sea bottom.
• Constant impact of breaking waves drastically affects the coasts. Storm waves and tsunami waves can cause far-reaching changes in a short period of time than normal breaking waves.

Other than the action of waves, the coastal landforms depend upon

1. The configuration of land and sea floor;
2. Whether the coast is advancing (emerging) seaward or retreating (submerging) landward.

Assuming sea level to be constant, two types of coasts are considered to explain the concept of evolution of coastal landforms:

1. high, rocky coasts (submerged coasts);
2. Low, smooth and gently sloping sedimentary coasts (emerged coasts).

HIGH ROCKY COASTS

• Along the high rocky coasts, the rivers appear to have been drowned with highly irregular coastline.
• The coastline appears highly indented with extension of water into the land where glacial valleys (fjords) are present.
• The hill sides drop off sharply into the water. Shores do not show any depositional landforms initially.
• Erosion features dominate Along high rocky coasts, waves break with great force against the land shaping the hill sides into cliffs.
• With constant pounding by waves, the cliffs recede leaving a wave-cut platform in front of the sea cliff.
• Waves gradually minimise the irregularities along the shore.
• Bars (long ridges of sand and/or shingle parallel to the coast) in the near shore zone. Bars are submerged features and when bars show up above water, they are called barrier bars.
• Barrier bar which get keyed up to the headland of a bay is called a spit.
• When barrier bars and spits form at the mouth of a bay and block it, a lagoon forms.
• The lagoons would gradually get filled up by sediments from the land giving rise to a coastal plain

LOW SEDIMENTARY COASTS

• Along low sedimentary coasts the rivers appear to extend their length by building coastal plains and deltas.
• The coastline appears smooth with occasional incursions of water in the form of lagoons and tidal creeks. The land slopes gently into the water.
• Marshes and swamps may abound along the coasts. Depositional features dominate.
• When waves break over a gently sloping sedimentary coast, the bottom sediments get churned and move readily building bars, barrier bars, spits and lagoons.
• Lagoons would eventually turn into a swamp which would subsequently turn into a coastal plain.
• The maintenance of these depositional features depends upon the steady supply of materials
• Storm and tsunami waves cause drastic changes irrespective of supply of sediments.
• Large rivers which bring lots of sediments build deltas along low sedimentary coasts.
• The west coast of our country is a high rocky retreating coast.
• Erosional forms dominate in the west coast.
• The east coast of India is a low sedimentary coast.
• Depositional forms dominate in the east coast

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS

Cliffs, Terraces, Caves and Stacks

• Wave-cut cliffs and terraces are two forms usually found where erosion is the dominant shore process.
• Almost all sea cliffs are steep and may range from a few m to 30 m or even more.
• At the foot of such cliffs there may be a flat or gently sloping platform covered by rock debris derived from the sea cliff behind.
• Such platforms occurring at elevations above the average height of waves is called a wave-cut terrace.
• The lashing of waves against the base of the cliff and the rock debris that gets smashed against the cliff along with lashing waves create hollows and these hollows get widened and deepened to form sea caves.
• The roofs of caves collapse and the sea cliffs recede further inland.
• Retreat of the cliff may leave some remnants of rock standing isolated as small islands just off the shore.
• Such resistant masses of rock, originally parts of a cliff or hill are called sea stacks.

DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS

Beaches and Dunes

• Beaches are characteristic of shorelines that are dominated by deposition, but may occur as patches along even the rugged shores.
• Most of the sediment making up the beaches comes from land carried by the streams and rivers or from wave erosion.
• Beaches are temporary features.
• Most of the beaches are made up of sand sized materials. Beaches called shingle beaches contain excessively small pebbles and even cobbles.
• Just behind the beach, the sands lifted and winnowed from over the beach surfaces will be deposited as sand dunes.
• Sand dunes forming long ridges parallel to the coastline are very common along low sedimentary coasts.

Bars, Barriers and Spits

• A ridge of sand and shingle formed in the sea in the off-shore zone (from the position of low tide waterline to seaward) lying approximately parallel to the coast is called an off-shore bar.
• An off-shore bar which is exposed due to further addition of sand is termed a barrier bar.
• The off-shore bars and barriers commonly form across the mouth of a river or at the entrance of a bay. Sometimes such barrier bars get keyed up to one end of the bay when they are called spits.
• Spits may also develop attached to headlands/hills. The barriers, bars and spits at the mouth of the bay gradually extend leaving only a small opening of the bay into the sea and the bay will eventually develop into a lagoon.
• The lagoons get filled up gradually by sediment coming from the land or from the beach itself (aided by wind) and a broad and wide coastal plain may develop replacing a lagoon.
• The coastal off-shore bars offer the first buffer or defence against storm or tsunami by absorbing most of their destructive force.
• Then come the barriers, beaches, beach dunes and mangroves, if any, to absorb the destructive force of storm and tsunami waves.
• So, if we do anything which disturbs the ‘sediment budget’ and the mangroves along the coast, these coastal forms will get eroded away leaving human habitations to bear first strike of storm and tsunami waves.

WINDS

• Wind is one of the two dominant agents in hot deserts.
• The desert floors get heated up too much and too quickly because of being dry and barren.
• The heated floors heat up the air directly above them and result in upward movements in the hot lighter air with turbulence, and any obstructions in its path sets up eddies, whirlwinds, updrafts and downdrafts.
• Winds also move along the desert floors with great speed and the obstructions in their path create turbulence.
• Of course, there are storm winds which are very destructive.
• Winds cause deflation, abrasion and impact.
• Deflation includes lifting and removal of dust and smaller particles from the surface of rocks.
• In the transportation process sand and silt act as effective tools to abrade the land surface.
• The impact is simply sheer force of momentum which occurs when sand is blown into or against a rock surface.
• It is similar to sand- blasting operation.
• The desert rocks devoid of vegetation, exposed to mechanical and chemical weathering processes due to drastic diurnal temperature changes, decay faster and the torrential rains help in removing the weathered materials easily.
• That means, the weathered debris in deserts is moved by not only wind but also by rain/sheet wash.
• The wind moves fine materials and general mass erosion is accomplished mainly through sheet floods or sheet wash.
• Stream channels in desert areas are broad, smooth and indefinite and flow for a brief time after rains.

Chapter-8
COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE

Gases

• Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very important gas as it is transparent to the incoming solar radiation but opaque to the outgoing terrestrial radiation.
• Absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and reflects back some part of it towards the earth’s surface.
• Largely responsible for the greenhouse effect.
• The volume of other gases is constant but the volume of carbon dioxide has been rising in the past few decades mainly because of the burning of fossil fuels.
• This has also increased the temperature of the air.
• Ozone is another important component of the atmosphere found between 10 and 50 km above the earth’s surface and acts as a filter and absorbs the ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun and prevents them from reaching the surface of the earth

Water Vapour

• Water vapour is also a variable gas in the atmosphere, which decreases with altitude.
• In the warm and wet tropics, it may account for four per cent of the air by volume, while in the dry and cold areas of desert and polar regions, it may be less than one per cent of the air.
• Water vapour also decreases from the equator towards the poles.
• It also absorbs parts of the insolation from the sun and preserves the earth’s radiated heat.
• It thus, acts like a blanket allowing the earth neither to become too cold nor too hot.
• Water vapour also contributes to the stability and instability in the air

Dust Particles

• Atmosphere has a sufficient capacity to keep small solid particles, which may originate from different sources and include sea salts, fine soil, smoke-soot, ash, pollen, dust and disintegrated particles of meteors.
• Dust particles are generally concentrated in the lower layers of the atmosphere; yet, convectional air currents may transport them to great heights.
• The higher concentration of dust particles is found in subtropical and temperate regions due to dry winds in comparison to equatorial and Polar Regions.
• Dust and salt particles act as hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour condenses to produce clouds

STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

• The atmosphere consists of different layers with varying density and temperature.
• Density is highest near the surface of the earth and decreases with increasing altitude.
• The column of atmosphere is divided into five different layers depending upon the temperature condition.
• They are: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.
• The troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere.
• Its average height is 13 km and extends roughly to a height of 8 km near the poles and about 18 km at the equator.
• Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator because heat is transported to great heights by strong convectional currents.
• This layer contains dust particles and water vapour.
• All changes in climate and weather take place in this layer.
• The temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of 1°C for every 165m of height. This is the most important layer for all biological activity.
• The zone separating the tropsophere from stratosphere is known as the tropopause.
• The air temperature at the tropopause is about minus 800C over the equator and about minus 45oC over the poles.
• The temperature here is nearly constant, and hence, it is called the tropopause.
• The stratosphere is found above the tropopause and extends up to a height of 50 km.
• One important feature of the stratosphere is that it contains the ozone layer.
• This layer absorbs ultra-violet radiation and shields life on the earth from intense, harmful form o energy.
• The mesosphere lies above the stratosphere, which extends up to a height of 80 km. In this layer, once again, temperature starts decreasing with the increase in altitude and reaches up to minus 100°C at the height of 80 km.
• The upper limit of mesosphere is known as the mesopause.
• The ionosphere is located between 80 and 400 km above the mesopause.
• It contains electrically charged particles known as ions, and hence, it is known as ionosphere.
• Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer.
• Temperature here starts increasing with height. The uppermost layer of the atmosphere above.

SOLAR RADIATION

• The earth’s surface receives most of its energy in short wavelengths. The energy received by the earth is known as incoming solar radiation which in short is termed as insolation
• As the earth is a geoid resembling a sphere, the sun’s rays fall obliquely at the top of the atmosphere and the earth intercepts a very small portion of the sun’s energy.
• On an average the earth receives 1.94 calories per sq. cm per minute at the top of its atmosphere.
• During its revolution around the sun, the earth is farthest from the sun (152 million km) on 4th July. This position of the earth is called aphelion.
• On 3rd January, the earth is the nearest to the sun (147 million km). This position is called perihelion.
• Therefore, the annual insolation received by the earth on 3rd January is slightly more than the amount received on 4th July.
• Variation in the solar output does not have great effect on daily weather changes on the surface of the earth.

Variability of Insolation at the Surface of the Earth

• The amount and the intensity of insolation vary during a day, in a season and in a year. The factors that cause these variations in insolation are : (i) the rotation of earth on its axis; (ii) the angle of inclination of the sun’s rays; (iii) the length of the day; (iv) the transparency of the atmosphere; (v) the configuration of land in terms of its aspect. The last two however, have less influence.
• The fact that the earth’s axis makes an angle of 66 with the plane of its orbit round the sun has a greater influence on the amount of insolation received at different latitudes.
• The second factor that determines the amount of insolation received is the angle of inclination of the rays. This depends on the latitude of a place.
• The higher the latitude the less is the angle they make with the surface of the earth resulting in slant sun rays.
• The area covered by vertical rays is always less than the slant rays. If more area is covered, the energy gets distributed and the net energy received per unit area decreases.
• Moreover, the slant rays are required to pass through greater depth of the atmosphere resulting in more absorption, scattering and diffusion.

The Passage of Solar Radiation through the Atmosphere

• The atmosphere is largely transparent to short wave solar radiation.
• The incoming solar radiation passes through the atmosphere before striking the earth’s surface.
• Within the troposphere water vapour, ozone and other gases absorb much of the near infrared radiation.
• Very small-suspended particles in the troposphere scatter visible spectrum both to the space and towards the earth surface.
• This process adds colour to the sky.
• The red colour of the rising and the setting sun and the blue colour of the sky are the result of scattering of light within the atmosphere.

Spatial Distribution of Insolation at the Earth’s Surface

• The insolation received at the surface varies from about 320 Watt/m2 in the tropics to about 70 Watt/m2 in the poles.
• Maximum insolation is received over the subtropical deserts, where the cloudiness is the least.
• Equator receives comparatively less insolation than the tropics.
• Generally, at the same latitude the insolation is more over the continent than over the oceans.
• In winter, the middle and higher latitudes receive less radiation than in summer.

HEATING AND COOLING OF ATMOSPHERE

• There are different ways of heating and cooling of the atmosphere. The earth after being heated by insolation transmits the heat to the atmospheric layers near to the earth in long wave form.
• The air in contact with the land gets heated slowly and the upper layers in contact with the lower layers also get heated. This process is called conduction.
• Conduction takes place when two bodies of unequal temperature are in contact with one another, there is a flow of energy from the warmer to cooler body. The transfer of heat continues until both the bodies attain the same temperature or the contact is broken.
• Conduction is important in heating the lower layers of the atmosphere.
• The air in contact with the earth rises vertically on heating in the form of currents and further transmits the heat of the atmosphere. This process of vertical heating of the atmosphere is known as convection.
• The convective transfer of energy is confined only to the troposphere.
• The transfer of heat through horizontal movement of air is called advection. Horizontal movement of the air is relatively more important than the vertical movement.
• In middle latitudes, most of diurnal (day and night) variation in daily weather are caused by advection alone. In tropical regions particularly in northern India during summer season local winds called ‘loo’ is the outcome of advection process.

Terrestrial Radiation

• The insolation received by the earth is in short waves forms and heats up its surface.
• The earth after being heated itself becomes a radiating body and it radiates energy to the atmosphere in long wave form.
• This energy heats up the atmosphere from below.
• This process is known as terrestrial radiation.
• The long wave radiation is absorbed by the atmospheric gases particularly by carbon dioxide and the other green house gases. Thus, the atmosphere is indirectly heated by the earth’s radiation.
• The atmosphere in turn radiates and transmits heat to the space. Finally the amount of heat received from the sun is returned to space, thereby maintaining constant temperature at the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere.

Heat Budget of the Planet Earth

• The earth as a whole does not accumulate or loose heat. It maintains its temperature.
• This can happen only if the amount of heat received in the form of insolation equals the amount lost by the earth through terrestrial radiation

Variation in the Net Heat Budget at the Earth’s Surface

• There are variations in the amount of radiation received at the earth’s surface.
• Some part of the earth has surplus radiation balance while the other part has deficit.
• The surplus heat energy from the tropics is redistributed pole wards and as a result the tropics do not get progressively heated up due to the accumulation of excess heat or the high latitudes get permanently frozen due to excess deficit.

Temperature

• The interaction of insolation with the atmosphere and the earth’s surface creates heat which is measured in terms of temperature.
• While heat represents the molecular movement of particles comprising a substance, the temperature is the measurement in degrees of how hot (or cold) a thing (or a place) is.

Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution

1. the latitude of the place;
2. the altitude of the place;
3. distance from the sea, the air- mass circulation;
4. the presence of warm and cold ocean currents;
5. Local aspects.

1. The latitude: The temperature of a place depends on the insolation received. It has been explained earlier that the insolation varies according to the latitude hence the temperature also varies accordingly.

2. The altitude- The atmosphere is indirectly heated by terrestrial radiation from below.

• Therefore, the places near the sea-level record higher temperature than the places situated at higher elevations.
• In other words, the temperature generally decreases with increasing height.
• The rate of decrease of temperature with height is termed as the normal lapse rate. It is 6.5°C per 1,000 m.

3. Distance from the sea: Another factor that influences the temperature is the location of a place with respect to the sea.

• Compared to land, the sea gets heated slowly and loses heat slowly.
• Land heats up and cools down quickly.
• Therefore, the variation in temperature over the sea is less compared to land.
• The places situated near the sea come under the moderating influence of the sea and land breezes which moderate the temperature

4. Air-mass and Ocean currents: Like the land and sea breezes, the passage of air masses also affects the temperature.

• The places, which come under the influence of warm air-masses
• Experience higher temperature and the places that come under the influence of cold air- masses experience low temperature.
• Similarly, the places located on the coast where the warm ocean currents flow record higher temperature than the places located on the coast where the cold currents flow.

Distribution of Temperature

• The global distribution of temperature can well be understood by studying the temperature distribution in January and July.
• The Isotherms are lines joining places having equal temperature.
• Northern hemisphere the land surface area is much larger than in the southern hemisphere.
• Hence, the effects of land mass and the ocean currents are well pronounced
• In January the isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean and to the south over the continent. This can be seen on the North Atlantic Ocean.
• The presence of warm ocean currents, Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift, make the Northern Atlantic Ocean warmer and the isotherms bend towards the north.
• Over the land the temperature decreases sharply and the isotherms bend towards south in Europe.
• It is much pronounced in the Siberian plain.
• The mean January temperature along 60° E longitude is minus 20° C both at 80° N and 50° N latitudes.
• The mean monthly temperature for January is over 27° C, in equatorial oceans over 24° C in the tropics and 2° C - 0° C in the middle latitudes and –18° C to – 48° C in the Eurasian continental interior.
• The effect of the ocean is well pronounced in the southern hemisphere. Here the isotherms are more or less parallel to the latitudes and the variation in temperature is more gradual than in the northern hemisphere.
• The isotherm of 20° C, 10° C, and 0° C runs parallel to 35° S, 45° S and 60° S latitudes respectively.
• In July the isotherms generally run parallel to the latitude. The equatorial oceans record warmer temperature, more than 27°C.
• Over the land more than 30°C is noticed in the subtropical continental region of Asia, along the 30° N latitude. Along the 40° N runs the isotherm of 10° C and along the 40° S the temperature is 10° C.

INVERSION OF TEMPERATURE

• Normally, temperature decreases with increase in elevation. It is called normal lapse rate.
• The situations are reversed and the normal lapse rate is inverted. It is called Inversion of temperature.
• Inversion is usually of short duration but quite common nonetheless.
• A long winter night with clear skies and still air is ideal situation for inversion.
• The heat of the day is radiated off during the night, and by early morning hours, the earth is cooler than the air above.
• Over polar areas, temperature inversion is normal throughout the year.
• Surface inversion promotes stability in the lower layers of the atmosphere. Smoke and dust particles get collected beneath the inversion layer and spread horizontally to fill the lower strata of the atmosphere.
• Dense fogs in mornings are common occurrences especially during winter season.
• This inversion commonly lasts for few hours until the sun comes up and beings to warm the earth.
• The inversion takes place in hills and mountains due to air drainage.
• Cold air at the hills and mountains, produced during night, flows under the influence of gravity.
• Being heavy and dense, the cold air acts almost like water and moves down the slope to pile up deeply in pockets and valley bottoms with warm air above. This is called air drainage.
• It protects plants from frost damages.

Chapter-10
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION AND WEATHER SYSTEMS

• Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled. This results in variations in the atmospheric pressure.
• The result is that it causes the movement of air from high pressure to low pressure, setting the air in motion. Air in horizontal motion is wind.
• Atmospheric pressure also determines when the air will rise or sink.
• The wind redistributes the heat and moisture across the planet, thereby, maintaining a constant temperature for the planet as a whole.
• The vertical rising of moist air cools it down to form the clouds and bring precipitation.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

• The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the top of the atmosphere is called the atmospheric pressure.
• The atmospheric pressure is expressed in units of millibar.
• At sea level AP- 1,013.2 millibar
• Due to gravity the air at the surface is denser and hence has higher pressure.
• Air pressure is measured with the help of a mercury barometer or the aneroid barometer
• The pressure decreases with height.
• At any elevation it varies from place to place and its variation is the primary cause of air motion, i.e. wind which moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.

Vertical Variation of Pressure

• In the lower atmosphere the pressure decreases rapidly with height.
• The decrease amounts to about 1 mb for each 10 m increase in elevation.
• It does not always decrease at the same rate.
• The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that of the horizontal pressure gradient.
• But, it is generally balanced by a nearly equal but opposite gravitational force.
• Hence, we do not experience strong upward winds.

Horizontal Distribution of Pressure

• Small differences in pressure are highly significant in terms of the wind direction and velocity.
• Horizontal distribution of pressure is studied by drawing isobars at constant levels.
• Isobars are lines connecting places having equal pressure.
• In order to eliminate the effect of altitude on pressure, it is measured at any station after being reduced to sea level for purposes of comparison.
• Low- pressure system is enclosed by one or more isobars with the lowest pressure in the centre.
• High-pressure system is also enclosed by one or more isobars with the highest pressure in the centre

World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure

• Near the equator the sea level pressure is low and the area is known as equatorial low.
• Along 30° N and 30º S are found the high-pressure areas known as the subtropical highs.
• Further pole wards along 60º N and 60º S, the low-pressure belts are termed as the sub polar lows.
• Near the poles the pressure is high and it is known as the polar high.
• These pressure belts are not permanent in nature. They oscillate with the apparent movement of the sun.
• In the northern hemisphere in winter they move southwards and in the summer northwards

Forces Affecting the Velocity and Direction of Wind

• The air in motion is called wind.
• The wind blows from high pressure to low pressure.
• The wind at the surface experiences friction.
• In addition, rotation of the earth also affects the wind movement.
• The force exerted by the rotation of the earth is known as the Coriolis force.
• Thus, the horizontal winds near the earth surface respond to the combined effect of three forces – the pressure gradient force, the frictional force and the Coriolis force.
• In addition, the gravitational force acts downward.

Pressure Gradient Force

• The differences in atmospheric pressure produce a force.
• The rate of change of pressure with respect to distance is the pressure gradient.
• The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars are close to each other and is weak where the isobars are apart.

Frictional Force

• It affects the speed of the wind.
• It is greatest at the surface and its influence generally extends upto an elevation of 1- 3 km.
• Over the sea surface the friction is minimal.

Coriolis Force

• The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind. This force is called the Coriolis force after the French physicist who described it in 1844.
• It deflects the wind to the right direction in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
• The deflection is more when the wind velocity is high.
• Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of latitude. It is maximum at the poles and is absent at the equator.
• The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force. The pressure gradient force is perpendicular to an isobar.
• The higher the pressure gradient force, the more is the velocity of the wind and the larger is the deflection in the direction of wind.
• As a result of these two forces operating perpendicular to each other, in the low-pressure areas the wind blows around it.
• At the equator, the Coriolis force is zero and the wind blows perpendicular to the isobars.
• The low pressure gets filled instead of getting intensified. That is the reason why tropical cyclones are not formed near the equator.

Pressure and Wind

• The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above the surface, are free from frictional effect of the surface and are controlled mainly by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force.
• When isobars are straight and when there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis force and the resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar. This wind is known as the Geostrophic wind
• The wind circulation around a low is called cyclonic circulation.
• Around a high it is called anti cyclonic circulation. The direction of winds around such systems changes according to their location in different hemispheres
• The wind circulation at the earth’s surface around low and high on many occasions is closely related to the wind circulation at higher level. Generally, over low pressure area the air will converge and rise.
• Over high pressure area the air will subside from above and diverge at the surface
• Apart from convergence, some eddies, convection currents, orographic uplift and uplift along fronts cause the rising of air, which is essential for the formation of clouds and precipitation

General circulation of the atmosphere

The pattern of planetary winds largely depends on-

1. latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating;
2. emergence of pressure belts;
3. the migration of belts following apparent path of the sun;
4. the distribution of continents and oceans;
5. The rotation of earth.

• The pattern of the movement of the planetary winds is called the general circulation of the atmosphere.
• The general circulation of the atmosphere also sets in motion the ocean water circulation which influences the earth’s climate.

• The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises because of convection caused by high insolation and a low pressure is created.
• The winds from the tropics converge at this low pressure zone. The converged air rises along with the convective cell. It reaches the top of the troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km. And moves towards the poles.
• This causes accumulation of air at about 30º N and S.
• Another reason for sinking is the cooling of air when it reaches 30º N and S latitudes.
• Down below near the land surface the air flows towards the equator as the easterlies.
• The easterlies from either side of the equator converge in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
• Such circulations from the surface upwards and vice-versa are called cells. Such a cell in the tropics is called Hadley Cell.
• In the middle latitudes the circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes from the poles and the rising warm air that blows from the subtropical high.
• At the surface these winds are called westerlies and the cell is known as the Ferrel cell.
• At polar latitudes the cold dense air subsides near the poles and blows towards middle latitudes as the polar easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell.
• These three cells set the pattern for the general circulation of the atmosphere. The transfer of heat energy from lower latitudes to higher latitudes maintains the general circulation.

The general circulation of the atmosphere also affects the oceans.

The large-scale winds of the atmosphere initiate large and slow moving currents of the ocean. Oceans in turn provide input of energy and water vapour into the air.

These interactions take place rather slowly over a large part of the ocean.

General Atmospheric Circulation and its Effects on Oceans

• Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean is most important in terms of general atmospheric circulation.
• The warm water of the central Pacific Ocean slowly drifts towards South American coast and replaces the cool Peruvian current.
• Such appearance of warm water off the coast of Peru is known as the El Nino.
• The El Nino event is closely associated with the pressure changes in the Central Pacific and Australia. This change in pressure condition over Pacific is known as the southern oscillation.
• The combined phenomenon of southern oscillation and El Nino is known as ENSO.
• In the years when the ENSO is strong, large-scale variations in weather occur over the world.
• The arid west coast of South America receives heavy rainfall, drought occurs in Australia and sometimes in India and floods in China.
• This phenomenon is closely monitored and is used for long range forecasting in major parts of the world.

Seasonal Wind

• The pattern of wind circulation is modified in different seasons due to the shifting of regions of maximum heating, pressure and wind belts.
• The most pronounced effect of such a shift is noticed in the monsoons, especially over southeast Asia.
• The other local deviations from the general circulation system are as follows.

Local Winds

Differences in the heating and cooling of earth surfaces and the cycles those develop daily or annually can create several common, local or regional winds.

Land and Sea Breezes

• The land and sea absorb and transfer heat differently. During the day the land heats up faster and becomes warmer than the sea.
• Therefore, over the land the air rises giving rise to a low pressure area, whereas the sea is relatively cool and the pressure over sea is relatively high.
• Thus, pressure gradient from sea to land is created and the wind blows from the sea to the land as the sea breeze

In the night the reversal of condition takes place. The land loses heat faster and is cooler than the sea.

The pressure gradient is from the land to the sea and hence land breeze results

Mountain and Valley Winds

• In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes get heated up and air moves upslope and to fill the resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the valley.
• This wind is known as the valley breeze.
• During the night the slopes get cooled and the dense air descends into the valley as the mountain wind.
• The cool air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley is called katabatic wind.
• Another type of warm wind occurs on the leeward side of the mountain ranges The moisture in these winds, while crossing the mountain ranges condense and precipitate.
• When it descends down the leeward side of the slope the dry air gets warmed up by adiabatic process.
• This dry air may melt the snow in a short time.

Air Masses

• When the air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently longer time, it acquires the characteristics of the area.
• The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast plains.
• The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of temperature and humidity is called an air mass.
• It is defined as a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and moisture.
• The homogenous surfaces, over which air masses form, are called the source regions.
• The air masses are classified according to the source regions. There are five major source regions.

These are:

1. Warm tropical and subtropical oceans;
2. The subtropical hot deserts;
3. The relatively cold high latitude oceans;
4. The very cold snow covered continents in high latitudes;
5. Permanently ice covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica.

The following are types of air- masses are recognised:

1. Maritime tropical (mT);
2. Continental tropical (cT);
3. Maritime polar (mP);
4. Continental polar (cP);
5. Continental arctic (cA).

Tropical air masses are warm and polar air masses are cold.

Fronts

When two different air masses meet, the boundary zone between them is called a front.  The process of formation of the fronts is known as frontogenesis.

There are four types of fronts:

1. Cold
2. Warm
3. Stationary
4. Occluded

• When the front remains stationary, it is called a stationary front.
• When the cold air moves towards the warm air mass, its contact zone is called the cold front, whereas if the warm air mass moves towards the cold air mass, the contact zone is a warm front.
• If an air mass fully lifted above the land surface, it is called the occluded front.
• The fronts occur in middle latitudes and are characterised by steep gradient in temperature and pressure.
• They bring abrupt changes in temperature and cause the air to rise to form clouds and cause precipitation.

Tropical Cyclones

• They are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and move over to the coastal areas bringing about large scale destruction caused by violent winds, very heavy rainfall and storm surges.
• They are known as Cyclones in the Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic, Typhoons in the Western Pacific and South China Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western Australia.
• The energy that intensifies the storm, comes from the condensation process in the towering cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the centre of the storm.
• With continuous supply of moisture from the sea, the storm is further strengthened.
• On reaching the land the moisture supply is cut off and the storm dissipates. The place where a tropical cyclone crosses the coast is called the landfall of the cyclone.
• The cyclones, which cross 20o N latitude generally, recurve and they are more destructive.
• They cover a larger area and can originate over the land and sea. Whereas the tropical cyclones originate only over the seas and on reaching the land they dissipate.
• The extra tropical cyclone affects a much larger area as compared to the tropical cyclone. The wind velocity in a tropical cyclone is much higher and it is more destructive.
• The extra tropical cyclones move from west to east but tropical cyclones, move from east to west.
• A mature tropical cyclone is characterised by the strong spirally circulating wind around the centre, called the eye.
• The diameter of the circulating system can vary between 150 and 250 km.
• The eye is a region of calm with subsiding air.
• Around the eye is the eye wall, where there is a strong spiralling ascent of air to greater height reaching the Tropopause.
• The wind reaches maximum velocity in this region, reaching as high as 250 km per hour.
• Torrential rain occurs here.
• From the eye wall rain bands may radiate and trains of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds may drift into the outer region.
• Tropical cyclones originate and intensify over warm tropical oceans.

The conditions favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical storms are:

1. Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C;
2. Presence of the Coriolis force;
3. Small variations in the vertical wind speed;
4. A pre-existing weak- low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation;
5. Upper divergence above the sea level system

Extra Tropical Cyclones

• The systems developing in the mid and high latitude, beyond the tropics are called the middle latitude or extra tropical cyclones.
• Extra tropical cyclones form along the polar front.
• Initially, the front is stationary.
• In the northern hemisphere, warm air blows from the south and cold air from the north of the front.
• When the pressure drops along the front, the warm air moves northwards and the cold air move towards, south setting in motion an anticlockwise cyclonic circulation.
• The cyclonic circulation leads to a well-developed extra tropical cyclone, with a warm front and a cold front.

Thunderstorms and Tornadoes

• Thunderstorms are caused by intense convection on moist hot days.
• A thunderstorm is a well-grown cumulonimbus cloud producing thunder and lightning.
• When the clouds extend to heights where sub-zero temperature prevails, hails are formed and they come down as hailstorm.
• If there is insufficient moisture, a thunderstorm can generate dust- storms.
• A thunderstorm is characterised by intense updraft of rising warm air, which causes the clouds to grow bigger and rise to greater height. This causes precipitation.
• Later, downdraft brings down to earth the cool air and the rain.
• From severe thunderstorms sometimes spiralling wind descends like a trunk of an elephant with great force, with very low pressure at the centre, causing massive destruction on its way.
• Such a phenomenon is called a tornado. Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes. The tornado over the sea is called water sprouts.

Chapter-11
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE

• Water is present in the atmosphere – gaseous, liquid and solid.
• The moisture in the atmosphere is derived from water bodies through evaporation and from plants through transpiration.

Humidity-

• Water vapour present in the air is known as humidity.
• The actual amount of the water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as the absolute humidity.
• It is the weight of water vapour per unit volume of air and is expressed in terms of grams per cubic metre.
• The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as compared to its full capacity at a given temperature is known as the relative humidity.
• The air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be saturated.
• The temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample of air is known as dew point

EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION

• Evaporation is a process by which water is transformed from liquid to gaseous state.
• The temperature at which the water starts evaporating is referred to as the latent heat of vaporization.
• Increase in temperature increases water absorption and retention capacity of the given parcel of air.

Condensation-

• The transformation of water vapour into water.
• Caused by the loss of heat.
• When moist air is cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity to hold water vapour ceases. Then, the excess water vapour condenses into liquid form.
• If it directly condenses into solid form, it is known as sublimation.
• In free air, condensation results from cooling around very small particles termed as hygroscopic condensation nuclei.
• Particles of dust, smoke and salt from the ocean are particularly good nuclei because they absorb water.
• Condensation also takes place when the moist air comes in contact with some colder object and it may also take place when the temperature is close to the dew point.
• Condensation, therefore, depends upon the amount of cooling and the relative humidity of the air. Condensation is influenced by the volume of air, temperature, pressure and humidity.

Condensation takes place-

1. When the temperature of the air is reduced to dew point with its volume remaining constant;
2. When both the volume and the temperature are reduced;
3. When moisture is added to the air through evaporation. However, the most favourable condition for condensation is the decrease in air temperature.

• After condensation the water vapour or the moisture in the atmosphere takes one of the following forms — dew, frost, fog and clouds.
• Condensation takes place when the dew point is lower than the freezing point as well as higher than the freezing point.

Dew

• When the moisture is deposited in the form of water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid objects (rather than nuclei in air above the surface) such as stones, grass blades and plant leaves, it is known as dew.
• The ideal conditions for its formation are clear sky, calm air, high relative humidity, and cold and long nights.
• For the formation of dew, it is necessary that the dew point is above the freezing point.

Frost

• Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes place below freezing point (0ºC), i.e. the dew point is at or below the freezing point.
• The excess moisture is deposited in the form of minute ice crystals instead of water droplets
• The ideal conditions for the formation of white frost are the same as those for the formation of dew, except that the air temperature must be at or below the freezing point.

Fog and Mist

• When the temperature of an air mass containing a large quantity of water vapour falls all of a sudden, condensation takes place within itself on fine dust particles.
• Fog is a cloud with its base at or very near to the ground. Because of the fog and mist, the visibility becomes poor to zero.
• In urban and industrial centres smoke provides plenty of nuclei which help the formation of fog and mist. Such a condition when fog is mixed with smoke, is described as smog.
• The only difference between the mist and fog is that mist contains more moisture than the fog.
• In mist each nuclei contains a thicker layer of moisture.
• Mists are frequent over mountains as the rising warm air up the slopes meets a cold surface.
• Fogs are drier than mist and they are prevalent where warm currents of air come in contact with cold currents.
• Fogs are mini clouds in which condensation takes place around nuclei provided by the dust, smoke, and the salt particles.

Clouds

• Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation of the water vapour in free air at considerable elevations.
• As the clouds are formed at some height over the surface of the earth, they take various shapes.

According to their height, expanse, density and transparency or opaqueness clouds are grouped under four types-

1. cirrus;
2. cumulus;
3. stratus;
4. Nimbus.

Cirrus

• Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes (8,000 - 12,000m).
• They are thin and detached clouds having a feathery appearance.
• They are always white in colour.

Cumulus

• Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool.
• They are generally formed at a height of 4,000 - 7,000 m.
• They exist in patches and can be seen scattered here and there.
• They have a flat base.

Stratus

• As their name implies, these are layered clouds covering large portions of the sky.
• These clouds are generally formed either due to loss of heat or the mixing of air masses with different temperatures.

Nimbus

• Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray.
• They form at middle levels or very near to the surface of the earth.
• These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the sun.
• Sometimes, the clouds are so low that they seem to touch the ground.
• Nimbus clouds are shapeless masses of thick vapour

A combination of these four basic types can give rise to the following types of clouds:

high clouds– cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus; middle clouds – altostratus and altocumulus; low clouds – stratocumulus and nimbostratus and clouds with extensive vertical development – cumulus and cumulonimbus

Types of Rainfall

Convectional Rain

Orographic Rain

Cyclonic Rain

World Distribution of Rainfall

• The coastal areas of the world receive greater amounts of rainfall than the interior of the continents.
• Between the latitudes 35 and 40 N and S of the equator, the rain is heavier on the eastern coasts and goes on decreasing towards the west.
• But, between 45 and 65 N and S of equator, due to the westerlies, the rainfall is first received on the western margins of the continents and it goes on decreasing towards the east.
• Wherever mountains run parallel to the coast, the rain is greater on the coastal plain, on the windward side and it decreases towards the leeward side.

On the basis of the total amount of annual precipitation, major precipitation regimes of the world are identified as follows-

• The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the mountains along the western coasts in the cool temperate zone and the coastal areas of the monsoon land receive heavy rainfall of over 200 cm per annum.
• Interior continental areas receive moderate rainfall varying from 100 - 200 cm per annum.
• The coastal areas of the continents receive moderate amount of rainfall.
• The central parts of the tropical land and the eastern and interior parts of the temperate lands receive rainfall varying between 50 - 100 cm per annum.
• Areas lying in the rain shadow zone of the interior of the continents and high latitudes receive very low rainfall-less than 50 cm per annum.
• In some regions rainfall is distributed evenly throughout the year such as in the equatorial belt and in the western parts of cool temperate regions

Chapter-12
WORLD CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Three broad approaches have been adopted for classifying climate-

1. Empirical classification is based on observed data, particularly on temperature and precipitation.
2. Genetic classification attempts to organize climates according to their causes.
3. Applied classification is for specific purpose

KOEPPE N ’S SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE

• Identified a close relationship between the distribution of vegetation and climate.
• It is an based on mean annual and mean monthly temperature and precipitation data.

A – Tropical

Average temperature of the coldest month is 18° C or

B - Dry Climates

Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation

C - Warm Temperate

The average temperature of the coldest month of the years is higher than minus 3°C but below 18°C Climates

D - Cold Snow Forest

The average temperature of the coldest month is minus 3° C

E - Cold Climates

Average temperature for all months is below 10°C

H - High Land 

Cold due to elevation 

• The capital letters: A, C, D and E delineate humid climates and B dry climates.
• The climatic groups are subdivided into types, designated by small letters, based on seasonality of precipitation and temperature characteristics.
• The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters: f, m, w and s, where f corresponds to no dry season m - monsoon climate, w- winter dry season and s- summer dry season.
• The small letters a, b, c and d refer to the degree of severity of temperature.
• The B- Dry Climates are subdivided using the capital letters S for steppe or semi-arid and W for deserts.

Group A : Tropical Humid Climates

• Exists between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn
• The sun being overhead throughout the year and the presence of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) make the climate hot and humid.
• Annual range of temperature is very low and annual rainfall is high.

The tropical group is divided into three types, namely

1. Af- Tropical wet climate;
2. Am - Tropical monsoon climate;
3. Aw- Tropical wet and dry climate

Tropical Wet Climate (Af)

• Found near the equator.
• The major areas are the Amazon Basin in South America, western equatorial Africa and the islands of East Indies.
• Significant amount of rainfall occurs in every month of the year as thunder showers in the afternoon.
• The temperature is uniformly high and the annual range of temperature is negligible.
• The maximum temperature on any day is around 30°C while the minimum temperature is around 20°C.
• Tropical evergreen forests with dense canopy cover and large biodiversity are found in this climate

Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)

• Tropical monsoon climate (Am) is found over the Indian sub-continent, North Eastern part of South America and Northern Australia.
• Heavy rainfall occurs mostly in summer.
• Winter is dry.

Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw)

• Occurs north and south of Af type climate regions.
• It borders with dry climate on the western part of the continent and Cf or Cw on the eastern part.
• Extensive Aw climate is found to the north and south of the Amazon forest in Brazil and adjoining parts of Bolivia and Paraguay in South America, Sudan and south of Central Africa.
• The annual rainfall in this climate is considerably less than that in Af and Am climate types and is variable also.
• The wet season is shorter and the dry season is longer with the drought being more severe.
• Temperature is high throughout the year and diurnal ranges of temperature are the greatest in the dry season.
• Deciduous forest and tree-shredded grasslands occur in this climate.

Dry Climates: B

• Characterised by very low rainfall that is not adequate for the growth of plants.
• These climates cover a very large area of the planet extending over large latitudes from 15° - 60° north and south of the equator.
• At low latitudes, from 15° - 30°, they occur in the area of subtropical high where subsidence and inversion of temperature do not produce rainfall.
• On the western margin of the continents, adjoining the cold current, particularly over the west coast of South America, they extend more equator wards and occur on the coast land.
• In middle latitudes, from 35° - 60° north and south of equator, they are confined to the interior of continents where maritime-humid winds do not reach and to areas often surrounded by mountains.
• Dry climates are divided into steppe or semi-arid climate (BS) and desert climate (BW).
• They are further subdivided as subtropical steppe (BSh) and subtropical desert (BWh) at latitudes from 15° - 35° and mid-latitude steppe (BSk) and mid-latitude desert (BWk) at latitudes between 35°- 60°.

Subtropical Steppe (BSh) and Subtropical Desert (BWh) Climates

• Both have common precipitation and temperature characteristics.
• Located in the transition zone between humid and dry climates, subtropical steppe receives slightly more rainfall than the desert, adequate enough for the growth of sparse grasslands.
• The rainfall in both the climates is highly variable.
• The variability in the rainfall affects the life in the steppe much more than in the desert, more often causing famine.
• Rain occurs in short intense thundershowers in deserts and is ineffective in building soil moisture.
• Fog is common in coastal deserts bordering cold currents.
• Maximum temperature in the summer is very high. The highest shade temperature of 58° C was recorded at Al Aziziyah, Libya on 13 September 1922.
• The annual and diurnal ranges of temperature are also high.

Warm Temperate (Mid-Latitude) Climates-C

• Extend from 30° - 50° of latitude mainly on the eastern and western margins of continents.
• These climates generally have warm summers with mild winters.

They are grouped into four types:

1. Humid subtropical, i.e. dry in winter and hot in summer (Cwa);
2. Mediterranean (Cs);
3. Humid subtropical, i.e. no dry season and mild winter (Cfa);
4. Marine west coast climate (Cfb)

Humid Subtropical Climate (Cwa)

• Occurs pole ward of Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn, mainly in North Indian plains and South China interior plains.
• The climate is similar to Aw climate except that the temperature in winter is warm.

Mediterranean Climate (Cs)

• Occurs around Mediterranean sea, along the west coast of continents in subtropical latitudes between 30° - 40° latitudes
• Central California, Central Chile, along the coast in south eastern and south western Australia.
• These areas come under the influence of sub tropical high in summer and westerly wind in winter.
• Hence, the climate is characterised by hot, dry summer and mild, rainy winter.
• Monthly average temperature in summer is around 25° C and in winter below 10°C.
• The annual precipitation ranges between 35 - 90 cm

Humid Subtropical (Cfa) Climate

• Lies on the eastern parts of the continent in subtropical latitudes
• In this region the air masses are generally unstable and cause rainfall throughout the year.
• They occur in eastern United States of America, southern and eastern China, southern Japan, north- eastern Argentina, coastal south Africa and eastern coast of Australia.
• The annual averages of precipitation vary from 75-150 cm.
• Thunderstorms in summer and frontal precipitation in winter are common.
• Mean monthly temperature in summer is around 27°C, and in winter it varies from 5°-12° C.
• The daily range of temperature is small.

Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb)

• Located poleward from the Mediterranean climate on the west coast of the continents.
• The main areas are: North- western Europe, west coast of North America, north of California, southern Chile, south- eastern Australia and New Zealand.
• Due to marine influence, the temperature is moderate and in winter, it is warmer than for its latitude.
• The mean temperature in summer months ranges from 15°-20°C and in winter 4°-10°C.
• The annual and daily ranges of temperature are small
• Precipitation occurs throughout the year. Precipitation varies greatly from 50-250cm.

Cold Snow Forest Climates (D)

Occur in the large continental area in the northern hemisphere between 40°-70° north latitudes in Europe, Asia and North America.

Cold snow forest climates are divided into two types-

(i) Df- cold climate with humid winter;

(ii) Dw- cold climate with dry winter. The severity of winter is more pronounced in higher latitudes.

Cold Climate with Humid Winters (Df)

• Occurs poleward of marine west coast climate and mid latitude steppe. The winters are cold and snowy.
• The frost free season is short.
• The annual ranges of temperature are large.
• The weather changes are abrupt and short.
• Poleward, the winters are more severe.

Cold Climate with Dry Winters (Dw)

• Occurs mainly over North- eastern Asia
• The development of pronounced winter anti cyclone and its weakening in summer sets in monsoon like reversal of wind in this region
• Poleward summer temperatures are lower and winter temperatures are extremely low with many locations experiencing below freezing point temperatures for up to seven months in a year
• Precipitation occurs in summer
• The annual precipitation is low from 12-15 cm

Polar Climates (E)

Poleward beyond 70° latitude.

Polar climates consist of two types:

(i) Tundra (ET); (ii) Ice Cap (EF).

Tundra Climate (ET)

• The tundra climate (ET) is so called after the types of vegetation, like low growing mosses, lichens and flowering plants.
• This is the region of permafrost where the sub soil is permanently frozen.
• The short growing season and water logging support only low growing plants.
• During summer, the tundra regions have very long duration of day light.

Ice Cap Climate (EF)

• Occurs over interior Greenland and Antarctica
• Even in summer, the temperature is below freezing point.
• This area receives very little precipitation.
• The snow and ice get accumulated and the mounting pressure causes the deformation of the ice sheets and they break.
• They move as icebergs that float in the Arctic and Antarctic waters.
• Plateau Station, Antarctica ,79°S, portray this climate.

Highland Climates (H)

• Governed by topography
• In high mountains, large changes in mean temperature occur over short distances.
• Precipitation types and intensity also vary spatially across high lands.
• There is vertical zonation of layering of climatic types with elevation in the mountain environment.

Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)

• Carbon dioxide (CO2), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and ozone (O3)
• Some other gases such as nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO) easily react with GHGs and affect their concentration in the atmosphere.
• The effectiveness of any given GHG molecule will depend on the magnitude of the increase in its concentration, its life time in the atmosphere and the wavelength of radiation that it absorbs.
• The chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are highly effective.
• Ozone which absorbs ultra violet radiation in the stratosphere is very effective in absorbing terrestrial radiation when it is present in the lower troposphere.
• The largest concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere is carbon dioxide.
• The emission of CO2 comes mainly from fossil fuel combustion (oil, gas and coal).
• Forests and oceans are the sinks for the carbon dioxide.
• Forests use CO2 in their growth. So, deforestation due to changes in land use, also increases the concentration of CO2.
• Doubling of concentration of CO2 over pre-industrial level is used as an index for estimating the changes in climate in climatic models.
• The CFCs which drift into the stratosphere destroy the ozone. Large depletion of ozone occurs over Antarctica.
• The depletion of ozone concentration in the stratosphere is called the ozone hole.
• This allows the ultra violet rays to pass through the troposphere.
• International efforts have been initiated for reducing the emission of GHGs into the atmosphere.
• The most important one is the Kyoto protocol proclaimed in 1997.
• This protocol went into effect in 2005, ratified by 141 nations.
• Kyoto protocol bounds the 35 industrialised countries to reduce their emissions by the year 2012 to 5 % less than the levels prevalent in the year 1990.

Global Warming

• Due to the presence of greenhouse gases, the atmosphere is behaving like a greenhouse.
• The atmosphere also transmits the incoming solar radiation but absorbs the vast majority of long wave radiation emitted upwards by the earth’s surface.
• The gases that absorb long wave radiation are called greenhouse gases.
• The processes that warm the atmosphere are often collectively referred to as the greenhouse effect.
• The term greenhouse is derived from the analogy to a greenhouse used in cold areas for preserving heat.
• A greenhouse is made up of glass. The glass which is transparent to incoming short wave solar radiation is opaque to outgoing long wave radiation.
• The glass, therefore, allows in more radiation and prevents the long wave radiation going outside the glass house, causing the temperature inside the glasshouse structure warmer than outside.

Orographic Rain

• When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced to ascend and as it rises, it expands; the temperature falls, and the moisture is condensed.
• The chief characteristic of this sort of rain is that the windward slopes receive greater rainfall.
• After giving rain on the windward side, when these winds reach the other slope, they descend, and their temperature rises.
• Then their capacity to take in moisture increases and hence, these leeward slopes remain rainless and dry.
• The area situated on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area.
• It is also known as the relief rain.

Convectional Rain

• The, air on being heated, becomes light and rises up in convection currents.
• As it rises, it expands and loses heat and consequently, condensation takes place and cumulous clouds are formed.
• With thunder and lightning, heavy rainfall takes place but this does not last long.
• Such rain is common in the summer or in the hotter part of the day.
• It is very common in the equatorial regions and interior parts of the continents, particularly in the northern hemisphere.

Chapter-13
WATER (OCEANS)

RELIEF OF THE OCEAN FLOOR

TEMPERATURE OF OCEAN WATERS

1. Latitude : the temperature of surface water decreases from the equator towards the poles because the amount of insolation decreases poleward.
2. Unequal distribution of land and water: the oceans in the northern hemisphere receive more heat due to their contact with larger extent of land than the oceans in the southern hemisphere.
3. Prevailing wind: the winds blowing from the land towards the oceans drive warm surface water away from the coast resulting in the upwelling of cold water from below. It results into the longitudinal variation in the temperature. Contrary to this, the onshore winds pile up warm water near the coast and this raises the temperature.
4. Ocean currents: warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas while the cold currents decrease the temperature in warm ocean areas.
5. Gulf stream (warm current) raises the temperature near the eastern coast of North America and the West Coast of Europe while the Labrador current (cold current) lowers the temperature near the north-east coast of North America.

Horizontal and Vertical Distribution of Temperature

• The temperature-depth profile for the ocean water shows how the temperature decreases with the increasing depth.
• The profile shows a boundary region between the surface waters of the ocean and the deeper layers.
• The boundary usually begins around 100 - 400 m below the sea surface and extends several hundred of metres downward
• This boundary region, from where there is a rapid decrease of temperature, is called the thermocline.
• About 90 per cent of the total volume of water is found below the thermocline in the deep ocean.
• About 90 per cent of the total volume of water is found below the thermocline in the deep ocean.
• In this zone, temperatures approach 0° C.

3 layer system from surface to the bottom-

• The first layer represents the top layer of warm oceanic water and it is about 500m thick with temperatures ranging between 20° and 25° C.
• This layer, within the tropical region, is present throughout the year but in mid latitudes it develops only during summer.
• The second layer called the thermocline layer lies below the first layer and is characterised by rapid decrease in temperature with increasing depth. The thermocline is 500 -1,000 m thick.
• The third layer is very cold and extends upto the deep ocean floor.
• In the Arctic and Antarctic circles, the surface water temperatures are close to 0° C and so the temperature change with the depth is very slight.
• Here, only one layer of cold water exists, which extends from surface to deep ocean floor.
• The average temperature of surface water of the oceans is about 27°C and it gradually decreases from the equator towards the poles.
• The rate of decrease of temperature with increasing latitude is generally 0.5°C per latitude.
• The oceans in the N hemisphere record relatively higher temperature than in the southern hemisphere.
• The highest temperature is not recorded at the equator but slightly towards north of it.
• This variation is due to the unequal distribution of land and water in the northern and southern hemispheres.
• The heat is transmitted to the lower sections of the oceans through the process of convection.

SALINITY OF OCEAN WATERS

• Salinity is the term used to define the total content of dissolved salts in sea
• It is calculated as the amount of salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of seawater.
• It is usually expressed as parts per thousand or ppt.
• Salinity of 24.7 %has been considered as the upper limit to demarcate ‘brackish water’.

Factors affecting ocean salinity

• The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depend mainly on evaporation and precipitation.
• Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions by the fresh water flow from rivers, and in Polar Regions by the processes of freezing and thawing of ice.
• Wind, also influences salinity of an area by transferring water to other areas.
• The ocean currents contribute to the salinity variations. Salinity, temperature and density of water are interrelated.

Hence, any change in the temperature or density influences the salinity of water in an area.

1. Van in Turkey (330 o/oo ),
2. Dead Sea (238 o/oo ),
3. Great Salt Lake (220 o/oo)

Dissolved Salts in Sea Water (gm of Salt per kg of Water)–

• Chlorine 18.97
• Sodium 10.47
• Sulphate 2.65
• Magnesium 1.28
• Calcium 0.41
• Potassium 0.38
• Bicarbonate 0.14
• Bromine 0.06
• Borate 0.02
• Strontium 0.01

HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY

• The salinity for normal open ocean ranges between 33 o/oo and 37 o/oo .
• In the land locked Red Sea, it is as high as 41 o/oo , while in the estuaries and the Arctic, the salinity fluctuates from 0 - 35 o/oo , seasonally.
• In hot and dry regions, where evaporation is high, the salinity sometimes reaches to 70 o/oo.
• The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean is mainly due to its shape and larger areal extent.
• Salinity decreases from 35 o/oo - 31 o/oo on the western parts of the northern hemisphere because of the influx of melted water from the Arctic region
• The highest salinity is recorded between 15° and 20° latitudes.
• Maximum salinity (37 o/oo) is observed between 20° N and 30° N and 20° W - 60° W.
• It gradually decreases towards the north.
• The North Sea, in spite of its location in higher latitudes, records higher salinity due to more saline water brought by the North Atlantic Drift. Baltic Sea records low salinity due to influx of river waters in large quantity.
• The Mediterranean Sea records higher salinity due to high evaporation.
• Salinity is, however, very low in Black Sea due to enormous fresh water influx by rivers.
• The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35 o/oo. The low salinity trend is observed in the Bay of Bengal due to influx of river water.
• On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows higher salinity due to high evaporation and low influx of fresh water.

Vertical Distribution of Salinity

• Changes with depth, but the way it changes depends upon the location of the sea.
• Salinity at the surface increases by the loss of water to ice or evaporation, or decreased by the input of fresh waters, such as from the rivers.
• Salinity at depth is very much fixed, because there is no way that water is ‘lost’, or the salt is ‘added.’
• There is a marked difference in the salinity between the surface zones and the deep zones of the oceans.
• The lower salinity water rests above the higher salinity dense water.
• Salinity, generally, increases with depth and there is a distinct zone called the halocline, where salinity increases sharply.
• Other factors being constant, increasing salinity of seawater causes its density to increase.
• High salinity seawater, generally, sinks below the lower salinity water. This leads to stratification by salinity.

Chapter-14
MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER

• The horizontal motion refers to the ocean currents and waves.
• The vertical motion refers to tides.
• Due to attraction of the sun and the moon, the ocean water is raised up and falls down twice a day.

WAVES

• Waves are actually the energy, not the water as such, which moves across the ocean surface.
• Wind causes waves to travel in the ocean and the energy is released on shorelines.
• The motion of the surface water seldom affects the stagnant deep bottom water of the oceans.
• As a wave approaches the beach, it slows down.
• This is due to the friction occurring between the dynamic water and the sea floor.

Characteristics of Waves

• Wave crest and trough: The highest and lowest points of a wave are called the crest and trough respectively.
• Wave height: It is the vertical distance from the bottom of a trough to the top of a crest of a wave.
• Wave amplitude: It is one-half of the wave height.
• Wave period: It is merely the time interval between two successive wave crests or troughs as they pass a fixed point.
• Wavelength: It is the horizontal distance between two successive crests.
• Wave speed: It is the rate at which the wave moves through the water, and is measured in knots

TIDES –

• The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day, mainly due to the attraction of the sun and the moon, is called a tide.
• Movement of water caused by meteorological effects (winds and atmospheric pressure changes)are called surges. Surges are not regular like tides.
• The moon’s gravitational pull to a great extent and to a lesser extent the sun’s gravitational pull, are the major causes for the occurrence of tides.
• Another factor is centrifugal force, which is the force that acts to counter balance the gravity.
• Together, the gravitational pull and the centrifugal force are responsible for creating the two major tidal bulges on the earth.
• On the side of the earth facing the moon, a tidal bulge occurs while on the opposite side though the gravitational attraction of the moon is less as it is farther away, the centrifugal force causes tidal bulge on the other side
• The tidal bulges on wide continental shelves, have greater height. When tidal bulges hit the mid-oceanic islands they become low.
• The shape of bays and estuaries along a coastline can also magnify the intensity of tides.
• Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal magnitudes.
• When the tide is channelled between islands or into bays and estuaries they are called tidal currents.
• Tides of Bay of Fundy, Canada The highest tides in the world occur in the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada.

Importance of Tides

• Since tides are caused by the earth-moon-sun positions which are known accurately, the tides can be predicted well in advance.
• This helps the navigators and fishermen plan their activities. Tidal flows are of great importance in navigation.
• Tidal heights are very important, especially harbours near rivers and within estuaries having shallow ‘bars’ at the entrance, which prevent ships and boats from entering into the harbour.
• Tides are also helpful indesilting the sediments and in removing polluted water from river estuaries.
• Tides are used to generate electrical power (in Canada, France, Russia, and China).
• A 3 MW tidal power project at Durgaduani in Sunderbans of West Bengal is under way

Types of Tides-

Tides based on Frequency

Semi-diurnal tide-

• The most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low tides each day.
• The successive high or low tides are approximately of the same height.

Diurnal tide-

• There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day.
• The successive high and low tides are approximately of the same height.

Mixed tide-

• Tides having variations in height are known as mixed tides.
• These tides generally occur along the west coast of North America and on many islands of the Pacific Ocean.

Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth Positions

Spring tides-

• The position of both the sun and the moon in relation to the earth has direct bearing on tide height.
• When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line, the height of the tide will be higher.
• These are called spring tides and they occur twice a month, one on full moon period and another during new moon period.

Neap tides-

• Normally, there is a seven day interval between the spring tides and neap tides.
• At this time the sun and moon are at right angles to each other and the forces of the sun and moon tend to counteract one another.
• The Moon’s attraction, though more than twice as strong as the sun’s, is diminished by the counteracting force of the sun’s gravitational pull.

• Once in a month, when the moon’s orbit is closest to the earth (perigee), unusually high and low tides occur.
• During this time the tidal range is greater than normal. Two weeks later, when the moon is farthest from earth (apogee), the moon’s gravitational force is limited and the tidal ranges are less than their average height.
• The time between the high tide and low tide, when the water level is falling, is called the ebb. The time between the low tide and high tide, when the tide is rising, is called the flow or flood

OCEAN CURRENTS-

• Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely: (i) primary forces that initiate the movement of water; (ii) secondary forces that influence the currents to flow.
• The primary forces that influence the currents are: (i) heating by solar energy; (ii) wind; (iii) gravity; (iv) coriolis force.
• Heating by solar energy causes the water to expand. That is why, near the equator the ocean water is about 8 cm higher in level than in the middle latitudes.
• This causes a very slight gradient and water tends to flow down the slope.
• Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move.
• Friction between the wind and the water surface affects the movement of the water body in its course.
• Gravity tends to pull the water down the pile and create gradient variation.
• The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere
• These large accumulations of water and the flow around them are called Gyres.
• Differences in water density affect vertical mobility of ocean currents

Characteristics of Ocean Currents

• Currents are referred to by their “drift”.
• Usually, the currents are strongest near the surface and may attain speeds over five knots.
• At depths, currents are generally slow with speeds less than 0.5 knots.
• We refer to the speed of a current as its “drift.”
• Drift is measured in terms of knots. The strength of a current refers to the speed of the current.

Types of Ocean Currents –

• The ocean currents may be classified based on their depth as surface currents and deep water currents-
• Surface currents constitute about 10 per cent of all the water in the ocean, these waters are the upper 400 m of the ocean;
• Deep water currents make up the other 90 per cent of the ocean water.
• These waters move around the ocean basins due to variations in the density and gravity.

Ocean currents can also be classified based on temperature: as cold currents and warm currents-

1. Cold currents bring cold water into warm water areas. These currents are usually found on the west coast of the continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres) and on the east coast in the higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere;
2. Warm currents bring warm water into cold water areas and are usually observed on the east coast of continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres).

In the northern hemisphere they are found on the west coasts of continents in high latitudes.

Major Ocean Currents –

• Major ocean currents are greatly influenced by the stresses exerted by the prevailing winds and Coriolis force.
• The oceanic circulation pattern roughly corresponds to the earth’s atmospheric circulation pattern.
• The air circulation over the oceans in the middle latitudes is mainly anticyclonic (more pronounced in the southern hemisphere than in the northern hemisphere).
• The oceanic circulation pattern also corresponds with the same At higher latitudes.
• Where the wind flow is mostly cyclonic, the oceanic circulation follows this pattern. In regions of pronounced monsoonal flow, the monsoon winds influence the current movements.
• Due to the Coriolis force, the warm currents from low latitudes tend to move to the right in the northern hemisphere and to their left in the southern hemisphere.
• The oceanic circulation transports heat from one latitude belt to another in a manner similar to the heat transported by the general circulation of the atmosphere.
• The cold waters of the Arctic and Antarctic circles move towards warmer water in tropical and equatorial regions, while the warm waters of the lower latitudes move pole- wards

Effects of Ocean Currents –

• West coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes (except close to the equator) are bordered by cool waters.
• Their average temperatures are relatively low with a narrow diurnal and annual ranges.
• There is fog, but generally the areas are arid.
• West coasts of the continents in the middle and higher latitudes are bordered by warm waters which cause a distinct marine climate.
• They are characterised by cool summers and relatively mild winters with a narrow annual range of temperatures.
• Warm currents flow parallel to the east coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes. This results in warm and rainy climates.
• These areas lie in the western margins of the subtropical anti-cyclones.
• The mixing of warm and cold currents help to replenish the oxygen and favour the growth of planktons, the primary food for fish population.
• The best fishing grounds of the world exist mainly in these mixing zones.

Structure and Functions of Ecosystems-

• The structure of an ecosystem involves a description of the available plant and animal species.
• From a structural point of view, all ecosystems consist of Abiotic and biotic Factors
• Abiotic factors include rainfall, temperature, sunlight, atmospheric humidity, soil conditions, inorganic substances (carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus potassium, etc.).
• Biotic factors include the producers, the consumers (primary, secondary, tertiary) and the decomposers.
• Producers include all the green plants, which manufacture their own food through photosynthesis.
• The primary consumers include herbivorous animals like deer, goats, mice and all plant eating animals. The carnivores include all the flesh-eating animals like snakes, tigers and lions.
• Certain carnivores that feed also on carnivores are known as top carnivores like hawks and mongooses.
• Decomposers are those that feed on dead organisms (for example, scavengers like vultures and crows), and further breaking down of the dead matter by other decomposing agents like bacteria and various micro- organisms

Two types of food-chains are recognised:

Grazing food-

• Chain, the first level starts with plants as producers and ends with carnivores as consumers at the last level, with the herbivores being at the intermediate level.
• There is a loss of energy at each level which may be through respiration, excretion or decomposition.
• The levels involved in a food- chain range between three to five and energy is lost at each level.

Detritus food-

• Chain is based on autotrophs energy capture initiated by grazing animals and involves the decomposition or breaking down of organic wastes and dead matter derived from the grazing food-chain.

Types of Biomes-

There are five major biomes — forest, desert, grassland, aquatic and altitudinal biomes

Biogeochemical Cycles

• The sun is the basic source of energy on which all life depends.
• Out of the total solar insolation that reaches the earth’s surface, only a very small fraction (0.1%) is fixed in photosynthesis
• The cycle starts by absorbing the chemical elements by the organism and is returned to the air, water and soil through decomposition.
• These cycles are largely energised by solar insolation.
• These cyclic movements of chemical elements of the biosphere between the organism and the environment are referred to as biogeochemical cycles.
• There are two types of biogeochemical cycles: the gaseous and the sedimentary cycle.
• In the gaseous cycle, the main reservoir of nutrients is the atmosphere and the ocean.
• In the sedimentary cycle, the main reservoir is the soil and the sedimentary and other rocks of the earth’s crust.

The Water Cycle

• All living organisms, the atmosphere and the lithosphere maintain between them a circulation of water in solid, liquid or gaseous form referred to as the water or hydrologic cycle

The Carbon Cycle

• Carbon basic elements of all living organisms
• The carbon cycle is mainly the conversion of carbon dioxide. This conversion is initiated by the fixation of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis.
• Such conversion results in the production of carbohydrate, glucose that may be converted to other organic compounds such as sucrose, starch, cellulose, etc. Here, some of the carbohydrates are utilised directly by the plant itself.
• During this process, more carbon dioxide is generated and is released through its leaves or roots during the day.
• The remaining carbohydrates not being utilised by the plant become part of the plant tissue.
• Plant tissues are either being eaten by the herbivorous animals or get decomposed by the micro- organisms.
• The herbivores convert some of the consumed carbohydrates into carbon dioxide for release into the air through respiration.
• The micro-organisms decompose the remaining carbohydrates after the animal dies. The carbohydrates that are decomposed by the micro-organisms then get oxidised into carbon.

The Oxygen Cycle

• Oxygen is the main by-product of photosynthesis.
• It is involved in the oxidation of carbohydrates with the release of energy, carbon dioxide and water.
• The cycling of oxygen is a highly complex process.
• Oxygen occurs in a number of chemical forms and combinations.
• It combines with nitrogen to form nitrates and with many other minerals and elements to form various oxides such as the iron oxide, aluminium oxide and others.
• Much of oxygen is produced from the decomposition of water molecules by sunlight during photosynthesis and is released in the atmosphere through transpiration and respiration processes of plants.

The Nitrogen Cycle

• Nitrogen is a major constituent of the atmosphere comprising about 79% of the atmospheric gases.
• It is also an essential constituent of different organic compounds such as the amino acids, nucleic acids, proteins, vitamins and pigments.
• Only a few types of organisms like certain species of soil bacteria and blue green algae are capable of utilising it directly in its gaseous form.
• Generally, nitrogen is usable only after it is fixed.
• 90% of fixed nitrogen is biological.
• The principal source of free nitrogen is the action of soil micro-organisms and associated plant roots on atmospheric nitrogen found in pore spaces of the soil.
• Nitrogen can also be fixed in the atmosphere by lightning and cosmic radiation.
• In the oceans, some marine animals can fix it.
• After atmospheric nitrogen has been fixed into an available form, green plants can assimilate it.
• Herbivorous animals feeding on plants, in turn, consume some of it.
• Dead plants and animals, excretion of nitrogenous wastes are converted into nitrites by the action of bacteria present in the soil.
• Some bacteria can even convert nitrites into nitrates that can be used again by green plants.
• There are still other types of bacteria capable of converting nitrates into free nitrogen, a process known as denitrification

Other Mineral Cycle

• Phosphorus, sulphur, calcium and potassium.
• They usually occur as salts dissolved in soil water or lakes, streams and seas.
• Mineral salts come directly from the earth’s crust by weathering where the soluble salts enter the water cycle, eventually reaching the sea.
• Other salts are returned to the earth’s surface through sedimentation, and after weathering, they again enter the cycle.
• All living organisms fulfil their mineral requirements from mineral solutions in their environments.
• Other animals receive their mineral needs from the plants and animals they consume.
• After the death of living organisms, the minerals are returned to the soil and water through decomposition and flow.

Ecological Balance

• Ecological balance is a state of dynamic equilibrium within a community of organisms in a habitat or ecosystem.
• It can happen when the diversity of the living organisms remains relatively stable.
• Due to competition where the secondary forest species such as grasses, bamboos or pines overtakes the native species changing the original forest structure. This is called succession.

Ecological systems-

The interactions of a particular group of organisms with Abiotic factors within a particular habitat resulting in clearly defined energy flows and material cycles on land, water and air

Ecological adaptation-

Different types of ecosystems exist with varying ranges of environmental conditions where various plants and animal species have got adapted through evolution.

Types of Ecosystems-

• Terrestrial ecosystem- can be further be classified into ‘biomes’.
• A biome can be defined as the total assemblage of plant and animal species interacting within specific conditions.
• These include rainfall, temperature, humidity and soil conditions.
• Some of the major biomes of the world are: forest, grassland, desert and tundra biomes.

Aquatic ecosystems-

• It can be classed as marine and freshwater ecosystems.
• Marine ecosystem includes the oceans, estuaries and coral reefs.
• Freshwater ecosystem includes lakes, ponds, streams, marshes and bogs

Chapter-16
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

• Biodiversity is a system in constant evolution, from a view point of species, as well as from view point of an individual organism
• Biodiversity is not found evenly on the earth.
• Biodiversity itself is a combination of two words, Bio (life) and diversity (variety).
• In simple terms, biodiversity is the number and variety of organisms found within a specified geographic region
• It refers to the varieties of plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems they form.
• It relates to the variability among living organisms on the earth, including the variability within and between the species and that within and between the ecosystems.

Importance of Biodiversity

• Biodiversity has contributed in many ways to the development of human culture and, in turn, human communities have played a major role in shaping the diversity of nature at the genetic, species and ecological levels.
• Biodiversity plays the following roles: ecological, economic and scientific.

Types of Biodiversity

Genetic Diversity

• Genetic biodiversity refers to the variation of genes within species.
• Groups of individual organisms having certain similarities in their physical characteristics are called species.
• Human beings genetically belong to the homo sapiens group and also differ in their characteristics such as height, colour, physical appearance, etc., considerably. This is due to genetic diversity.
• This genetic diversity is essential for a healthy breeding of population of species

Species Diversity

• This refers to the variety of species. It relates to the number of species in a defined area.
• The diversity of species can be measured through its richness, abundance and types. Some areas are richer in species than others.
• Areas rich in species diversity are called hotspots of diversity

Ecosystem Diversity

• The broad differences between ecosystem types and the diversity of habitats and ecological processes occurring within each ecosystem type constitute the ecosystem diversity.
• The ‘boundaries’ of communities and ecosystems are not very rigidly defined.
• Thus, the demarcation of ecosystem boundaries is difficult and complex

The International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has classified the threatened species of plants and animals into three categories for the purpose of their conservation.

Endangered Species

• It includes those species which are in danger of extinction. The IUCN publishes information about endangered species world-wide as the Red List of threatened species.
• Red Panda — an endangered species
• Zenkeria Sebastinei — a critically endangered grass in Agasthiyamalai peak (India )

Vulnerable Species

• This includes the species which are likely to be in danger of extinction in near future if the factors threatening to their extinction continue.
• Survival of these species is not assured as their population has reduced greatly

Rare Species

Population of these species is very small in the world; they are confined to limited areas or thinly scattered over a wider area

Ecological Role of Biodiversity

• Every organism, besides extracting its needs, also contributes something of useful to other organisms.
• Species capture and store energy, produce and decompose organic materials, help to cycle water and nutrients throughout the ecosystem, fix atmospheric gases and help regulate the climate.
• These functions are important for ecosystem function and human survival.
• The more diverse an ecosystem, better are the chances for the species to survive through adversities and attacks, and consequently, is more productive.
• Hence, the loss of species would decrease the ability of the system to maintain itself. Just like a species with a high genetic diversity, an ecosystem with high biodiversity may have a greater chance of adapting to environmental change. In other words, the more the variety of species in an ecosystem, the more stable the ecosystem is likely to be.

Economic Role of Biodiversity-

• For all humans, biodiversity is an important resource in their day-to-day life.
• One important part of biodiversity is ‘crop diversity’, which is also called agro-biodiversity.
• Biodiversity is seen as a reservoir of resources to be drawn upon for the manufacture of food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products.
• This concept of biological resources is responsible for the deterioration of biodiversity.
• Some of the important economic commodities that biodiversity supplies to humankind are: food crops, livestock, forests, fish, medicinal resources, etc.

Scientific Role of Biodiversity

• Biodiversity is important because each species can give us some clue as to how life evolved and will continue to evolve.
• Biodiversity also helps in understanding how life functions and the role of each species in sustaining ecosystems of which we are also a species.
• The level of biodiversity is a good indicator of the state of our relationships with other living species.
• In fact, the concept of biodiversity is an integral part of many human cultures.

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

• Tropical regions which occupy only about one-fourth of the total area of the world, contain about 3-4^th of the world human population.
• Over- exploitation of resources and deforestation
• As these tropical rain forests contain 50% of the species on the earth, destruction of natural habitats have proved disastrous for the entire biosphere.
• Natural calamities such as earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions, forest fires, droughts, etc. cause damage to the flora and fauna of the earth, bringing change the biodiversity of respective affected regions.
• Pesticides and other pollutants such as hydrocarbons and toxic heavy metals destroy the weak and sensitive species.
• Species which are not the natural inhabitants of the local habitat but are introduced into the system, are called exotic species.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

• There is an urgent need to educate people to adopt environment-friendly practices and reorient their activities in such a way that our development is harmonious with other life forms and is sustainable.
• There is an increasing consciousness of the fact that such conservation with sustainable use is possible only with the involvement and cooperation of local communities and individuals.
• For this, the development of institutional structures at local levels is necessary.
• The critical problem is not merely the conservation of species nor the habitat but the continuation of process of conservation.
• The Government of India along with 155 other nations have signed the Convention of Biodiversity at the Earth Summit held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992.

The world conservation strategy has suggested the following steps for biodiversity conservation-

1. Efforts should be made to preserve the species that are endangered.
2. Prevention of extinction requires proper planning and management.
3. Varieties of food crops, forage plants, timber trees, livestock, animals and their wild relatives should be preserved;
4. Each country should identify habitats of wild relatives and ensure their protection.
5. Habitats where species feed, breed, rest and nurse their young should be safeguarded and protected.
6. International trade in wild plants and animals be regulated

• To protect, preserve and propagate the variety of species within natural boundaries, the Government of India passed the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, under which national parks and sanctuaries were established and biosphere reserves declared.
• There are some countries which are situated in the tropical region; they possess a large number of the world’s species diversity. They are called mega diversity centres.
• There are 12 such countries, namely Mexico, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, China, India, Malaysia, Indonesia and Australia in which these centres are located.
• Hotspots are defined according to their vegetation.
• Plants are important because these determine the primary productivity of an ecosystem.
• Most, but not all, of the hotspots rely on species-rich ecosystems for food, firewood, cropland, and income from timber.
• In Madagascar, for example, about 85 % of the plants and animals are found nowhere else in the world, Other hotspots in wealthy countries are facing different types of pressures.
• The islands of Hawaii have many unique plants and animals that are threatened by introduced species and land development.