Chapter- 1
 Environment

Chapter- 2
Inside Our Earth

Layers of Earth

Rock Cycle

Rock System

Chapter- 3
Our Changing Earth

The place in the crust where the movement starts is called the focus.

The place on the surface above the focus is called the epicentre.

River Course

Work of Sea Waves-

• Sea caves- hollow like caves are formed on the rocks
• As these cavities become bigger and bigger only the roof of the caves remain, thus forming sea arches.
• Further, erosion breaks the roof and only walls are left. These wall like features are called stacks.
• The steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above sea water is called sea cliff.

Work of Ice

The material carried by the glacier such as rocks big and small, sand and silt gets deposited. These deposits form glacial moraines.

Work of Wind

• Rocks in the shape of a mushroom, commonly called mushroom rocks
• When the wind blows, it lifts and transports sand from one place to another. When it stops blowing the sand falls and gets deposited in low hill – like structures. These are called sand dunes
• When the grains of sand are very fine and light, the wind can carry it over very long distances. When such sand is deposited in large areas, it is called loess.

Chapter- 4

Air

• Troposphere: average height-13 km; weather phenomena like rainfall, fog and hailstorm occur in this layer.
• Stratosphere: extends up to a height of 50 km; almost free from clouds and associated weather phenomenon, making conditions most ideal for flying aeroplanes; layer of ozone gas.
• Mesosphere: extends up to the height of 80 km. Meteorites burn up in this layer on entering from the space.
• Thermosphere: temperature rises very rapidly with increasing height. Ionosphere is a part; extends between 80-400 km. This layer helps in radio transmission. In fact, radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer.
• Exosphere: upper most layer; This layer has very thin air. Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into the space from here.

• Insolation is the incoming solar energy intercepted by the earth.
• The amount of insolation decreases from the equator towards the poles.
• Thermometer- Measures the temperature
• Barometer: Measures atmospheric pressure
• Rain Gauge: Measures the amount of rainfall
• Wind Vane: Shows the direction of the wind
• Air pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the weight of air on the earth’s surface.
• As we go up the layers of atmosphere, the pressure falls rapidly.
• The air pressure is highest at sea level and decreases with height.
• Horizontally the distribution of air pressure is influenced by temperature of air at a given place.
• In areas where temperature is high the air gets heated and rises.  This creates a low-pressure area.
• Low pressure is associated with cloudy skies and wet weather.
• In areas having lower temperature, the air is cold. It is therefore heavy.
• Heavy air sinks and creates a high pressure area. High pressure is associated with clear and sunny skies.
• The air always moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.

Wind

The movement of air from high pressure area to low pressure areas is called wind.

 

Winds can be broadly divided into three types.

1. Permanent winds – The trade winds, westerlies and easterlies are the permanent winds.

• These blow constantly throughout the year in a particular direction.

2. Seasonal winds – These winds change their direction in different seasons.

• For example monsoons in India.

3. Local winds – These blow only during a particular period of the day or year in a small area.

• For example, land and sea breeze.
• Hot and dry local wind of northern planes of India is called loo.

Types of Rainfall

Chapter- 5
Water

DISTRIBUTION OF WATER BODIES

World – Major Seas, Lakes and Rivers

Tides

OCEAN CURRENTS

Chapter- 6
Natural Vegetation and Wild Life

Tropical Evergreen Forests-

• Near the equator and close to the tropics.
• These regions are hot and receive heavy rainfall throughout the year.
• There is no particular dry season, the trees do not shed their leaves altogether; so called evergreen.
• The thick canopies of the closely spaced trees do not allow the sunlight to penetrate inside the forest even in the day time.
• Hardwood trees like rosewood, ebony, mahogany are common here.
• Anaconda found here

Tropical Deciduous Forests-

• Monsoon forests- India, northern Australia and in central America
• Trees shed their leaves in the dry season to conserve water.
• Hardwood trees- sal, teak, neem and Shisham (useful for making furniture, transport and constructional materials)
• Tigers, lions, elephants, langoors and monkeys

Temperate Evergreen Forests-

• Located in the mid- latitudinal coastal region
• They are commonly found along the eastern margin of the continents, e.g., In south east USA, South China and in South East Brazil.
• Hard+  soft wood trees like oak, pine, eucalyptus, etc.

Temperate Deciduous Forests-

• Found in the north eastern part of USA, China, New Zealand, Chile and also found in the coastal regions of Western Europe.
• They shed their leaves in the dry season.
• Trees- oak, ash, beech, etc.
• Animals- Deer, foxes, wolves
• Birds- pheasants, monals

Mediterranean Vegetation-

• The most of the east and north east margins of the continents are covered by temperate evergreen and deciduous trees.
• The west and south west margins of the continents are different.
• It is mostly found in the areas around the Mediterranean sea in Europe, Africa and Asia
• This kind of vegetation is also found outside the actual Mediterranean region in California in the USA, south west Africa, south western South America and South west Australia.
• Marked for hot dry summers and mild rainy winters.
• Citrus fruits such as oranges, figs, olives and grapes are commonly cultivated here because people have removed the natural vegetation in order to cultivate what they want to.
• Mediterranean trees adapt themselves to dry summers with the help of their thick barks and wax coated leaves which help them reduce transpiration.
• Mediterranean regions are known as ‘Orchards of the world’ for their fruit cultivation.

Coniferous Forests

• In the higher latitudes (50° – 70°) of Northern hemisphere
• These are also called as Taiga.
• These are the trees which Salima found in the Himalayas in abundance.
• They are tall, softwood evergreen trees.
• The woods of these trees are very useful for making pulp, which is used for manufacturing paper and newsprint.
• Match boxes and packing boxes are also made from softwood.
• Chir, pine, cedar are the important variety of trees in these forests.
• Silver fox, mink, polar bear are the common animals found here

GRASSLANDS

Tropical grasslands-

• These occur on either side of the equator and extend till the Tropics.
• This vegetation grows in the areas of moderate to low amount of rainfall.
• The grass can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 metres in height.
• Eg. Savannah grasslands of Africa
• Elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards
• East Africa- Savanna
• Brazil- Campos
• Venezuela- Llanos

Temperate grasslands-

• These are found in the mid-latitudinal zones and in the interior part of the continents.
• Usually, grass here is short and nutritious.
• Wild buffaloes, bisons, antilopes are common in the temperate region.

1. Argentina- Pampas
2. N. America- Prairie
3. S. Africa- Veld
4. C. Asia- Steppe
5. Australia- Down

Thorny bushes:

• These are found in the dry desert like regions.
• Tropical deserts are located on the western margins of the continents.
• The vegetation cover is scarce here because of scanty rain and scorching heat.

Tundra type of vegetation-

• The growth of natural vegetation is very limited here.
• Only mosses, lichens and very small shrubs are found here.
• It grows during the very short summer
• This vegetation is found in the polar areas of Europe, Asia and North America.
• The animals have thick fur and thick skin to protect themselves from the cold climatic conditions.
• Seal, walruses, musk-oxen, Arctic owl, Polar bear and snow foxes are some of the animals found here

Chapter- 7
Human Environment- Settlement, Transport and Communication

Chapter- 8
Human Environment Interactions
The Tropical and the Sub- Tropical Region

LIFE IN THE AMAZON BASIN-

 

LIFE IN THE GANGA-BRAHMAPUTRA BASIN

• Lies in the sub-tropical region that is situated between 10°N to 30°N latitudes
• Monsoon climate; mid-June to mid-September
• Fertile soil; Agriculture- paddy mainly; Wheat, maize, sorghum, gram and millets; Banana cultivation
• Silk- Bihar and Assam; Bamboo
• In parts of Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, coniferous trees like pine, deodar and fir
• Elephants, tigers, deer and monkeys
• one-horned rhinoceros is found in the Brahmaputra plain.
• In the delta area, Bengal tiger, crocodiles and alligator are found.
• The most popular varieties of the fish are the rohu, catla and hilsa.
• In the fresh waters of River Ganga and River Brahmaputra, a variety of dolphin locally called Susu (also called blind dolphin) is found.

Chapter- 9
Life in Temperate Grasslands

THE PRAIRIES-

• North America
• The prairies are bound by the Rocky Mountains in the West and the Great Lakes in the East
• Cover parts of United States of America and parts of Canada.
• In the USA, the area is drained by the tributaries of Mississippi and the Canadian prairies are drained by the tributaries of Saskatchewan Rivers
• The grasslands of Prairies were the home of native Americans often called “Red Indians”
• Tribes- Apache, the Crow, the Cree and the Pawnee.

CLIMATE	FLORA AND FAUNA	PEOPLE
•Climate is of continental type with extreme temperatures •20°C, while in winter -20°C •annual rainfall is moderate •Chinook wind (Hot)	•tree-less •major crop of this area is maize, other crops including potatoes, soybean, cotton and alfa- alfa is also grown •Large cattle farms called ranches are looked after by sturdy men called cowboys •Bison- American Buffalo •rabbits, coyotes, gophers and Prairie dog	•Scientific methods of cultivation and use of tractors, harvesters and combines •Also known as the “Granaries of the world,” due to the huge surplus of wheat production. •Dairy farming (Great Lakes to the Atlantic Coast in the east) •coal and iron

THE VELDS-

• South Africa
• Velds are rolling plateaus with varying heights ranging from 600 m to 1100 m.

CLIMATE	FLORA AND FAUNA
•Mild climate due to the influence of the Indian Ocean. •Winters are cold and dry •receive rainfall mainly in the summer from November to February; because of the warm ocean currents that wash the shores of the velds.	•cattle rearing and mining •main crops are maize, wheat, barley, oats and potato. •Cash crops like tobacco, sugarcane and cotton •Merino sheep is a popular species and their wool is very warm. •Dairy farming •Iron and steel industry •Gold and diamond (Kimberley)

Chapter- 10
Life in the Deserts

THE HOT DESERT – SAHARA-

• The Sahara desert touches eleven countries.
• These are Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan, Tunisia and Western Sahara.

CLIMATE	FLORA AND FAUNA	PEOPLE
•hot and parch dry •short rainy season •The nights may be freezing cold with temperatures nearing zero degrees	•cactus, date palms and acacia •oasis – green islands with date palms surrounding them •Camels, hyenas, jackals, foxes, scorpions, snakes and lizards	•Bedouins and Tuaregs •nomadic tribes rearing livestock such as goats, sheep, camels and horses •The oasis in the Sahara and the Nile Valley in Egypt supports settled population •The discovery of oil – a product in great demand throughout the world, in Algeria, Libya and Egypt •Trucks are replacing camels in the salt trade. •Tuaregs are seen acting as guides to foreign tourists

THE COLD DESERT – LADAKH-

•Ladakh is a cold desert lying in the Great Himalayas, on the eastern side of Jammu and Kashmir

CLIMATE	FLORA AND FAUNA	PEOPLE
•climate is extremely cold and dry •rain shadow of the Himalayas •The area experiences freezing winds and burning hot sunlight	•Due to high aridity, the vegetation is sparse. •There are scanty patches of grasses and shrubs for animals to graze. •Groves of willows and poplars are seen in the valleys. •Birds- Robins, redstarts, Tibetan snowcock, raven and hoopoe •Animals- wild goats, wild sheep, yak and special kinds of dogs	•either Muslims or Buddhists •Buddhists monasteries dot the Ladakhi landscape with their traditional ‘gompas’. •Some famous monasteries are Hemis, Thiksey, Shey and Lamayuru •The National Highway 1A connects Leh to Kashmir Valley through the Zoji la Pass