Gupta Period

North India came under the rule of several foreign people, such as the Yavanas, Kushans, Sakas, Parthians, etc. They began to settle in north-west India from the first century B.C. onwards. Foreign rulers came to India due to the turbulent condition in central Asia.They adjusted themselves with Indian culture, and introduced some new elements in India.Three big political powers emerged in India between the 1st century B.C. and 3rd century A.D., which played an important stabilising factor over large regions. They were −

• Satavahanas in the Deccan,
• Kushanas in the north, and
• Sakas in the west.

In the mid of 3rd century A.D., the empires of the Satavahanas and Kushanas came to an end.

Gupta Dynasty

• A new dynasty, known as Gupta, emerged in north India. They made a permanent impact on Indian history by building up a large empire. They have firmly established several trends of Indian culture like the Mauryas a few centuries earlier.
• Apart from political might and strength, the Gupta kings were also known for their great achievements in the field of science, art, culture, and literature.
• The Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta mentions maharaja Srigupta and maharaja Ghatotkacha as his ancestors. But we do not know much about the early Guptas.
• I-tsing, a Chineses traveler, came to India between A.D. 671 and 695. He mentioned Srigupta as the builder of a temple at Gaya for the Chinese pilgrims about 500 years before his time.
• The king, Srigupta, has been identified as the first Gupta king mentioned in the Allahabad pillar inscription.
• Puranas also mentioned that the early Guptas controlled the area along the Ganga (the middle Gangetic basin), Prayag (Allahabad and surrounding region), Saketa (Ayodhya region), and Magadha.

1. Chandragupta-I

• Chandragupta-I succeeded his father Ghatottotkacha in A.D. 320.
• Chandragupta-I was considered to have laid the foundation of the great Gupta Empire. He was married to a Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi. The Lichchhavis were related to Gautama Buddh.
• The Lichchhavis were an old and established Ganarajya and quite powerful and still being respected in north India.
• The marriage alliance of Chandragupta-I was important for his political career as is proved by the coins Chandragupta I. These coins portray the figures of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi with the name of the Lichchhavis.
• In the Allahabad inscription, Samudragupta son of Chandragupta-I and Kumaradevi, proudly called himself Lichchhavis ‘Dauhitra’ i.e. son of the daughter of Lichchhavis.
• The Gupta era was started with a coronation of Chandragupta-I in A.D. 320. He was the first Gupta king to adopt the title ‘Maharajadhiraja’ and issued gold coins. Chandragupta-I introduced a new era called Gupta era.

2. Samudragupta

• Samudragupta succeeded his father Chandragupta-I about A.D. 340. He earned a reputation as one of the greatest kings and conquerors. He was chosen by his father as his successor because of his qualities that would make him into a good king.
• The Allahabad pillar inscription gives a detailed account of the career and personality of Samudragupta.
• Harishena one of the officials composed the inscription and engraved on the Ashoka's pillar at Allahabad.
• Samudragupta was a great military general. He had a long list of the kings and rulers whom he defeated and subdued as a part of his military achievements. He uprooted nine kings and princes from the Aryavarta and annexed their kingdom.
• Campaign of southern India was the most important campaign of Samudragupta
• Altogether twelve kings and princes of the south (dakshinapatha) are listed in the inscription.
• During the campaign of southern India, he adopted the policy of first capturing the kings, then releasing them from captivity, and then reinstalling them as kings in their territory. By showing royal mercy, he won their allegiance.
• Samudragupta proceeded for his south Indian campaign, through the eastern and southern parts of Madhyadesha to Orissa and then advanced along the eastern coast and reached Kanchi and beyond and returned to his capital by way of Maharashtra and Khandesh.
• Samudragupta performed ‘Ashvamedhayajna’ after his several conquests and issued gold coins depicting the sacrificial horse and bearing the legend, which conveying that he performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice.
• The Allahabad pillar inscription also lists fourteen kingdoms bordering his kingdom. These rulers paid tribute followed his orders and showed their obedience by attending his court.
• These were located in eastern Rajasthan, northern Madhya Pradesh, Assam, and Nepal. Further, some forest kings (atavika-rajas) are mentioned whom Samudragupta had made his ‘Paricharaka’ (helpers).
• Other political powers listed in the inscription are such as Kushanas, Sakas, Murundas as well as Simhalas (Sri Lanka) and inhabitants of other islands. These rulers sent embassies to Samudragupta's court.
• Meghavarna, the king of Sri Lanka, sent an embassy to Samudragupta for his permission to build a monastery and a guest house for Buddhist pilgrims at Bodh Gaya.
• Samudragupta was a versatile genius. He was called as ‘Kaviraja’ i.e. the king of poets. He was proficient in war and sastras as well.
• The Allahabad pillar inscription calls him a great musician. This is also confirmed by his lyricist type of coins, which shows him playing veena (lute).
• Samudragupta patronized learned men in his court and appointed them as his ministers.
• Samudragupta died in about A.D. 380 and was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II.

3. Chandragupta II

• Chandragupta II was the son of Samudragupta and Dattadevi and he was chosen by his father as his successor.
• The Gupta Empire reached its highest glory, both in terms of territorial expansion and cultural excellence under Chandragupta II.
• Chandragupta II had inherited a strong and consolidated empire from his father Samudragupta.
• Chandragupta II had established a matrimonial alliance with Vakatakas by marrying his daughter Prabhavatigupta with Rudrasena-II of the Vakataka dynasty.
• Chandragupta-II made an alliance with the Vakatakas before attacking the Sakas so as to be sure of having a friendly power to back him up in Deccan.
• Prabhavatigupta acted as a regent on behalf of her two minor sons after the death of her husband Rudrasena II.
• Chandragupta-II’s victory over the mighty Sakas dynasty was his foremost success. The annexation of Sakas’s kingdom comprising Gujarat and part of Malwa strengthened the Gupta Empire, but also brought it into direct touch with western sea ports. This gave a great motivation to foreign trade and commerce.
• Ujjain, a major centre of trade, religion, and culture became the second capital of the Gupta Empire after the conquest.
• After the victory over Sakas, Chandragupta-II adopted the title of ‘Vikramaditya.’
• Chandragupta-II issued dated silver coins to commemorate his victory over Saka kshatrapas.
• The Mehrauli iron pillar inscription records portray a king named Chandra.
• The king Chandra is generally identified as Chandragupta-II. This would mean his kingdom extended from Bengal to the north-west frontiers.
• Chandragupta-II's reign is remembered for his patronage of literature and arts and for the high standard of artistic and cultural life.
• Kalidas, the great Sanskrit poet was a member of Chandragupta-II’s court.
• Fa-Hien, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim visited India between A.D. 405 and A.D. 411. He visited for collecting Buddhist manuscripts and text and studying at Indian monasteries.

4. Kumaragupta-I

• Chandragupta-II died about A.D. 413. His son Kumaragupta became the next king.
• Kumaragupta ruled for more than forty years. He performed an Ashvamedha sacrifice; though his military achievements are not known.
• Kumaragupta issued Ashvamedha type of coins like his grandfather, Samudragupta.
• The epigraphic records show that he organised the administration of vast empire and maintained its peace, prosperity, and security for a long period of forty years.
• The Gupta Empire was challenged by the Pushyamitras at the end of Kumaragupta's reign.
• Pushyamitras were living on the banks of the Narmada.
• Skandagupta was the son of Kumaragupta-I.

5. Skandagupta

• Kumaragupta-I died in A.D. 455. His son Skandagupta became the next king.
• Skandagupta's reign seems to have been full of wars. He struggled with his brother Purugupta.
• Hunas were the greatest enemies of Gupta’s empire during this period.
• Hunas were a ferocious barbarian horde. They lived in central Asia.
• Skandagupta successfully defeated the Hunas. So they did not dare to disturb the Gupta Empire for half a century. Though they continue to disconcert Persia during this period.
• The important event of Skandagupta's reign was the restoration and repair of the dam on Sudarsana Lake after 8 hundred years of construction. It was built during Chandragupta Maurya's reign.
• Sudarsana Lake was also repaired previously during the reign of Saka kshatrapa Rudradaman I.

India after the Gupta Period

After the Gupta period, India was divided into different small and medium kingdoms.

North India

• There were four major kingdoms in north India between the period in which the Guptas declines and the rise of Harsha (i.e. in the beginning of 7th century), namely
  ---> Guptas of Magadha;
  --> Maukharis of Kanauj;
  --> Maitrakas of Valabhi (Saurashtra); and
  --> Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar.

• These four kingdoms (enlisted above) were competed with each other to succeed to the past glory of the Guptas.
• The Guptas of Magadha were different from the main imperial Gupta dynasty. It was a minor dynasty of Magadha. It could not be determined whether they were connected in any way with the imperial Guptas. But some of the kings of this Gupta family were very powerful and ruled up to as far as the Brahmaputra River.
• The Maukharis occupied the region of western Uttar Pradesh around Kanauj. They captured a part of Magadha.
• Isanavarman and his son Sarvavarman were powerful Maukhari kings. They have adopted the title of “Maharajadhiraja.”
• Isanavarman successfully restrained the Hunas who had once again attempted to move towards the heart of India.
• The Maitraka clan founded a kingdom in Saurashtra in the west. They made their capital at Valabhi.
• Valabhi developed as a seat of learning and culture along with a center of trade and commerce.
• The Maitrakas survived the longest and ruled until the middle of the 8th century; however, they were defeated by the Arabs.
• The Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar was the fourth Kingdom. It was destined to play a distinguished part in Indian history.
• The Pushyabhuti family became known after the Huna invasion. Prabhakarvardhana became a powerful king of this kingdom. He played an important role in the history of India.
• Prabhakarvardhana assumed the title of ‘Paramabhattaraka Maharajadhiraja.’
• Banabhatta described him as “a lion to the Huna deer, a burning fever to the king of Sindhu, a troubler of sleep of Gurjara king, a bilious fever to that scent-elephant, the lord of Gandhara, a destroyer of the skill of the Latas, an axe to the creeper, which is the goddess of fortune of Malwa."
• Prabhakarvardhana’s sovereign kingdom was extended to the whole of Punjab in the north-west and part of Malwa in the south.
• There was a Huna invasion in the last phase of Prabhakarvardhana’s rule.
• Prabhakarvardhana had two sons, Rajyavardhana and Harshavardhana and a daughter Rajyasri. He married his daughter to the Maukhari king Grahavarman.
• Prabhakaravardhana had been rapidly extending the boundaries of his kingdom towards the west and south. During this period, two powerful kingdoms were established in Bengal and Assam.
• About A.D. 525, one independent kingdom was established in Bengal.
• Gauda kingdom comprises western and northern parts of Bengal. They declared their independence; however, the Maukharis defeated them.
• Sasanka became the king of Gauda kingdom about half a century later. He founded his capital at Karnasuvarna (near Murshidabad). He occupied the whole of Bengal. He captured Orissa and then advanced towards Kanauj in the west against the Maukharis.
• The Maukhari king Grahavarman was married to Rajyasri, daughter of Prabhakaravardhana. This marriage alliance strengthened the position of the two families.
• Sasanka (Gauda), with the help of Malwa king, invaded Kanauj after the death of Prabhakaravardhana. The King Grahavarman of Kanauj, was killed and the queen Rajyasri was thrown into prison.
• Hearing the news of Kanauj defeat, Rajyavardhana (brother of Harsha) started campaign to suppress the kings of Gauda and Malwa. But he was deceitfully killed by Sasanka.

Period of Harsha

Rajyavardhana was killed by Gauda king Sasanka. Harshavardhana (younger brother of Rajyavardhana) was ascended the Pushyabhuti throne in A.D. 606 at the age of sixteen. He was also known as ‘Siladitya.’ He ruled for forty-one years. After Grahavarman's death, the Councilors of Maukhari state offered the throne to Harsha.

Sources of Harsha’s History

• History of the Harsha period is well documented by Banabhatta. He was a poet and he had written ‘Harshacharita.’ It is a detailed account of the events of the reign of Harsha.

• HiuenTsang (Chinese pilgrim) also had written in great detail about Harsha and India (of Harsha's time).
• Harsha proceeded towards the east against Sasanka with a view to avenge the death of his brother, Rajyavardhana and brother-in-law, Grahavarman.
• Harsha did not get success in his first expedition against Gauda. But after the death of Sasanka, in his second expedition, he conquered Magadha and Sasanka's empire.
• Gauda kingdom was divided between Harsha and Bhaskaravarman.
• Bhaskaravarman was the king of Kamarupa. He was an ally of Harsha against Gauda Kingdom.

• Harsh was successful in his military enterprise, and conquered a large part of the northern India.
• Harsha also launched a campaign to extend his empire beyond the Narmada, but he failed to do so.
• Aihole inscription mentions that Harsha was defeated by Pulakesin-II (Pulakesin-II was a Chalukya king of Badami).
• Hiuen-Tsang also mentioned that Harsha could not defeat the Chalukya king.
• Harsha's empire was extended from the Punjab to northern Orissa and from Himalayas to the banks of Narmada.
• Harsh made military coilation with Dhruvabhatta II, the Maitraka king of Valabhi and Bhaskaravarman, the king of kings, Kamarupa.
• Harsha earned an undying reputation in the history of India for his peaceful activities as described by Hiuen - Tsang and by his biographer Banabhatta.
• Harsha, as a great emperor, was a patron of learning. He was himself a talented author. He wrote three Sanskrit plays, namely Nagananda, Ratnavali, and Priyadarsika.
• Banabhatta had written Harshacharita and Kadambari. He was a lerned poet.
• Harsha was an efficient administrator. He personally looked into the affairs of the state, and constantly travelled over different parts of his empire to see things with his own eyes.
• He was also a tolerant king. He was a Saiva by faith; however, he had given equal respect to other religious sects as well.
• Hiuen Tsang describes him as a liberal Buddhist who also honoured gods of others sects.
• Harsh’s charitable acts benefitted all the communities, sects, and religions.
• Harsha built rest houses, hospitals, and endowed numerous Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain establishments.
• The two most celebrated events of Harsha's reign were the assemblies at Kanauj and at Prayaga.
• The Kanauj assembly was held in honor of Hiuen-Tsang for whom he had great affection and regard.
• Kanauj assembly was attended by 24,000 Buddhist monks, and about 3,000 Jains and Brahmans.
• After the ceremony at Kanuaj, Harsha along with Hiuen-Tsang went to Prayaga (Allahabad), at the confluence of the rivers Ganga, Yamuna, and Saraswati. Here he used to celebrate religious festivals at the end of every five years.
• Harsha performed the ceremony of ‘dana’ (donation), which lasted for about three months. During these three months, he donated all his accumulated wealth of five years. He even gave his clothes and jewelry and once begged from his sister an ordinary garment to put on.
• Harsha attended six such assemblies at Prayaga in his life time and donated all he had.
• In A.D. 641, Harsha sent an embassy with Hiuen-Tsang to the Chinese emperor and received the Chinese embassy in return.
• Harsha did not have any heir to his throne. Therefore, after his death in A.D. 647, his empire was grabbed by his minister.

Kadamba Dynasty

• Mayurasharma established the Kadamba dynasty. He was a learned Brahman. It is said that Mayurasharma came to receive education at Kanchi, but he was insulted by some Pallava officials. To avenge his insult, he took up a military profession, defeated Pallava officials and then Pallavas recognized the independence of Mayursharma.
• The Mayurasharma ruled from Banavasi from A.D. 345 to 365.
• Kakusthavarman (A.D. 435-455) was the most powerful king and administrator of the Kadamba dynasty.
• Kakusthavarman established matrimonial relations with the Gangas and the Guptas (dynasties). He also extended his territory.

Struggle of Kadamba Dynasty

• After the death of Kakusthavarman, the Kadamba family split into two branches. One of the branches continued to rule from Banavasi and the other branch ruled from Triparvata.
• Krishnavarma-I, the ruler from Triparvata, united the family. But around A.D. 540, the Chalukyas of Badami defeated the Kadambas and captured their kingdom.
• In the southern Peninsula, three dynasties namely the Pallavas, Pandyas, and the Cholas were the major powers during this period.
• The Pallavas became prominent after the fall of Satavahanas from the 3rd century until the rise of Cholas in the 9th century A.D. However, the origin of Pallava is under debate.
• The Pallava kings were divided into two groups namely the early Pallavas and greater Pallavas.
• The Tamil and Sanskrit inscriptions tell about the early Pallavas. It is mentioned that they performed sacrifices and ruled over a well organized territory that covered the northern part of the Peninsula extending from the eastern sea to the western sea.
• Simhavishnu was the famous Pallava king ruling in the 6th century A.D. He increased the influence and prestige of his family.
• Simhavishnu’s son and successor Mahendravarman-I (A.D. 600-630) was a versatile genius. He was both a poet and a singer.
• Mahendravarman-I composed a play ‘Mattavilas Prahasana’ (the Delight of the Drunkards) in Sanskrit.
• During this period, the practice of scooping entire temples out of solid rock was introduced.
• The ‘Rathas’ of Mahabalipuram are fine examples of rock cutting temple.
• Mahendravarman-I was the contemporary of the Chalukya king, Pulakesin-II and Harshavardhan of Kanauj.
• During this period, Pulakesin-II had struggled with Harsha on the one hand and with Mahendravarman-I on the other. In both Pulakesin-II emerged victorious.
• Pulakesin-II captured the northern provinces of Pallava’s kingdom after defeating Mahendravarman-I.
• Later on, Pulakesin-II was defeated by Narsimhavarman. He was son and successor of Mahendravarman-I.
• Narasimhavarman conquered Badami and adopted the title of ‘Vatapikonda.’
• Narasimhavarman had also defeated the Cholas, the Cheras, the Pandyas, and the Kalabhas.
• Narasimhavarman gave political refuge to a Ceylonese prince Manavarman and sent two naval expeditions to Ceylon to help him to secure the throne again.
• Narasimhavarman was one of the most powerful rulers of south India and raised the power and prestige of the Pallavas as far as Ceylon and South East Asia.
• Narasimhavarman-II ruled peacefully during the A.D. 695-722.
• During this period, a particular style of temple architecture was developed. This is popularly known as the ‘Dravidian’ style of temple architecture.
• Pallavas faced attacks from the Chalukya king Vikramaditya-II (A.D. 733-745) during the first half of the 8th century. He is said to have overrun Kanchi thrice.
• The Pallavas had also been condemned of Pandyas and Rashtrakutas during the reign of Dantivarman (around A.D. 796-840).
• Because of the continuous struggles, the power of the Pallavas began to decline.
• The Pallavas were succeeded by the Cholas. They also developed as the greatest imperial power in the south. They had influence over Ceylon and the South East Asian countries.

Rashtrakutas of Deccan

The Pala kings ruled in the eastern India, the Pratiharas ruled in the north India, and Rashtrakutas ruled in the Deccan. The term ‘Rashtrakuts’ literarily means officers in-charge of territorial divisions (known as Rashtras). The Rashtrakuts were the officers of Rashtra (province) under the early Chalukyas of Badami.

Rulers of Rashtrakutas

• Dantivarman or Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakuts dynasty. He made his capital at Manyakhet or Malkhed near modern Sholapur.
• Dantivarman was succeeded by his uncle Krishna I about A.D. 758.
• Krishna-I extended his kingdom from Maharashtra to Karnataka.
• Dhruva became king in about A.D. 779. It was the opening of a new era in the history of Rashtrakutas.
• Dhruva was the first Rashtrakuta ruler from Deccan who had intervene in the tripartite struggle of supremacy in north India. He had defeated two powers of the North India i.e the Pratihara king Vatsaraja and the Pala king Dharmapala of Bengal.
• Dhruva added the emblem of Ganga and Yamuna to his imperial emblem after his successful campaigns in north India.
• Dhruva was succeeded by Govinda-III (A.D. 793-813).
• Govinda-III also made invasions into north India and fought successfully against the Pala king Dharmapala and Chakrayudha the ruler of Kanauj.
• Govinda-III shattered the union of the Ganga, Chera, Pandya, and Pallava rulers in south India.
• Govind-III was succeeded by his son Amoghavarsha-I (A.D. 814-878).
• Amoghavarsha-I had been ruled for 60 years. He is better known for his leanings towards religion and literature.
• Amoghavarsha supported Jainism. He was a patron of literature and patronized as the men of letter.
• Amoghavarsha wrote Kavirajamarga. It was earliest Kannada work on poetics.
• Amoghavarsha was a great builder. He built the capital city Manyakhet.
• The successor of Amoghavarsha were Indra-III (A.D. 915-927) and Krishna-III (939- 965). Both were the great Rashtrakuta rulers.
• Indra-III had defeated the Pratihara king Mahipala-I and ransacked his capital Kanauj.
• Arab traveler, Al-Masudi, calls the Rashtrakuta king as the greatest king of India.
• Krishna-III was the last famous king of Rashtrakuta. He struggled against the Paramaras of Malwa and eastern Chalukya of Vengi.
• Krishna-III also struggled against the Chola ruler of Tanjore. He reached up to Rameshwaram and built a pillar of victory and a temple there.
• The dominance of the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan is the remarkable period in the history of India.
• Rashtrakuta ruled more than three hundred years. They patronized Saivism and Vaishnavism. In addition, they also protected Jainism, Buddhism, and Islam.
• The Rashtrakuta rulers permitted the Muslim merchants to settle in their kingdom, build mosques, and preach their religion.
• Rashtrakuta rulers equally support Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Kannada along with Apabhramsa languages.
• Rock-cut cave temples excavated at Ellora are the symbols of Rashtrakuta’s religious toleration. They are one of the splendors of Indian arts.
• The Kailash temple was built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna-I. It is a supreme piece of art.

Tripartite Struggle

There were three great powers in India in the early phase of 8th century A.D., namely −
--> The Gurjara Pratihara in the north,
--> The Palas in the east, and
--> The Rasthrakutas in the Deccan.

• The tripartite struggle for the supremacy between the Palas, the Gurjara Pratiharas, and the Rashtrakutas was the important event of these centuries.
• The main cause of this struggle was the desire to possess the city of Kanauj, which was then a symbol of sovereignty. And, some other cause of this struggle was to have control over the intermediate fertile regions.
• The shifting of the power among these three was determined both by the internal strength of the respective region and the inability of the rulers to extend their control beyond their respective regions for a longer duration.
• All of the three dynasties (enlisted above) were having more or less same military equipment, administrative machinery, and the strategic concepts.
• The Arab travelers also affirmed that these three powers were equal in strength.
• Because of the balance of power, there was a great political stability within the regions, which nurtured the development of culture and education.
• The first encounter took place among the Pratihara king Vatsaraja, the Pala king Dharmapala, and Rashtrakuta king Dhruva.
• Rashtrakutas achieved a complete victory in the first phase. But the unfortunate death of Dhruva was a great set back to Rashtrakutas.
• Pala king Devapala (A.D. 821-860) was the most prominent in the second phase because his contemporary Pratihara and Rashtrakuta kings were weak rulers.
• Pratihara kings Bhoja (A.D. 836-885) and Mahendrapala (A.D. 885-910) proved to be more powerful in the third phase (during the 9th century).
• Each of the three kingdoms Pratiharas, Pala, and Rashtrakutas declined almost simultaneously around the end of the 10th century A.D.
• The end of these three dynasties marked the end of the glorious era of more than 300 years.