Alexander’s Campaign in India

• During the Alexander’s period, the western borderland of India was occupied by two Maha-Janpadas, namely Kamboja and Gandhara, which included the region of modern Punjab, Sindh, and Afghanistan.
• In 522-486 B.C. (during the reign of Darius), Achaemenians extended their empire to the northwestern part of India and they had subjugated a number of principalities living to the south of the Hindukush Mountains.
• Herodotus, the famous Greek historian, mentions that Darius sent a naval expedition in 517 B.C. to explore the valley of the Sindhu River.
• The evidences prove that the Indian soldiers were the part of the Achaemenian army that conquered Greece in the time of Xerxes (486-465 B.C.) and also fought against Alexander at Gaugamela in 330 B.C.
• The defeat of Darius III (the Achaemenian king) by Alexander became a turning point. Alexander dismantled the Persian Empire and captured most of the western Asia including Iraq and Iran.
• In 326 B.C., after the conquest of the Persian Empire, Alexander marched to India through the Khyber Pass.
• It is surprising that no Indian source mentions anything about Alexander or his campaign. The history of Alexander's campaign in India has been reconstructed on the basis of accounts available in Greek and Roman sources. It is also surprising to note that Greek sources are completely silent about Kautilya.
• The Greek sources, however, mention about Sandrocottas or Androcottas who has been identified as Chandragupta Maurya and fixing 326 B.C. as the date of Chandragupta's accession to the throne.

Alexander Expeditions in India

• In 326 B.C. when Alexander reached on the Indian soil, the king of Takshasila near Rawalpindi in Punjab offered help to him. But many of the Republican Chiefs and kings in Afghanistan, Punjab, and Sindh had poised a brave resistance and refused to submit to the Alexander without a fight.
• Alexander divided his army into two parts after crossing Hindukush and Alexander himself, conquers the north-western part of India.
• The Greeks had faced a strong resistance from tribal Hasti chief having capital Pushkalavati.
• The army of Assakenoi king was led by the queen, which was the example of an enthusiasm for the defense of the country by the people of these regions that even women and the mercenaries took part in fighting and preferred a glorious death.
• In spite of a hard resistance for many days (by the Assakenoi soldiers), Alexander captured the city Massaga (the capital of Assakenoi).
• After the victory of Assakenoi, Alexander had himself resolved a special agreement by which he granted the lives of the army of 7,000 mercenaries. But deceitfully, they had been slaughtered mercilessly in the night by Alexander and his soldiers. This massacre of Assakenoi has been condemned even by the Greek writers.
• Alexander, after defeating Assakenoi, joined his other division of army and constructed a bridge on the Indus River nearby Attock.
• After crossing the Indus, Alexander proceeded towards Taxila, but the king Ambhi admited the sovereignty of the Alexander.
• Paurava (Greeks call Porus), the ruler of a kingdom between the Jhelum and the Chenab was the most powerful among the north-western Indian provinces. Alexander made intense preparations to defeat him.
• Porus fought bravely and with nine wounds on his body, was led a captive before Alexander.
• When Porus was brought as captive before Alexander, he (Alexander) asked him how he would like to be treated. Porus replied proudly, "Like a King".
• Alexander made a coalition with the brave king Porus by restoring his kingdom and adding to it the territories of 15 republican states along with 5,000 cities and villages.
• Alexander had to fight hard with the Kathaioi (Kathas) on the bank of river Beas. The casualties tolled up to 17,000 killed and 70,000 captured.

Maurya Dynasty

• The Mauryan Empire was the first largest empires that ever established on Indian soil till 324 B.C.
• The epigraphical sources, literary sources, foreign accounts, and other materials obtained from the archaeological excavations describe the greatness of the Mauryan rulers and vast extensions of their empire.
• The Mauryan Empire was spread from the valley of the Oxus (present Amu River) to the delta of Kaveri.
• Chandragupta Maurya was the first ruler who unified entire India under one political unit.
• The detailed information about the administrative system of the Mauryan Empire is mentioned in Arthashastra. It is a book written by Kautilya. He was also known as Chanakya.
• Kautilya was the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya. He was considered as the real architect of the Mauryan Empire.
• Megasthenese came in the court of Chandragupta Maurya as an ambassador of the Seleucus (the king of Greek).
• Megasthenese has given detailed accounts of India and Indian people in his book ‘Indica.’ Though the original book is lost; however, historians extracted Megasthenese’s description through the quotations in the works of the later Greek writers.
• The inscriptions of the great Ashoka are the most important and authentic source for the history of Mauryan period.

Chandragupta Maurya

• Chandragupta Maurya had ruled during the period of 324-300 B.C.
• The Buddhist literature, the ‘Mahavamsa’ and ‘Dipavamsa’ give a detail account of Chandragupta Maurya.
• Chandragupta Maurya has been described as a descendant of the Kshatriya clan of the Moriyas branch of Sakyas. They lived in Pipphalivana, in eastern Uttar Pradesh.
• The ‘Mudrarakshasa’ is a play written by Vishakhadatta, referred Chandragupta as ‘Vrishala’ and ‘Kulahina,’ which means a person of humble origin.

Bindusara (300-273 B.C.)

• Bindusara, the son of Chandragupta Maurya, ascend to throne after his father.
• According to the Tibetan historian, Taranath, Chanakya continued as a minister of Bindusara after Chandragupta Maurya. Hemachandra, Jain scholar, also confirms this fact.
• Divyavadana mentions that Bindusara appointed his eldest son Sumana (or Susima) as his viceroy at Taxila and Ashoka at Ujjain. It also mentions that when a revolt broke out at Taxila, Ashoka was sent to restore peace as Susima fails to suppress it.
• Bindusara continued his policy of friendly relations with Hellenic world.
• Dionysius was the Egypt ambassador came to the court of Bindusara.
• Pliny mentions that Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt sent him as an ambassador.
• Bindusara had been given the credit of south Indian conquest, but most of the scholars believe that this was done by his father Chandragupta Maurya.

Ashoka (273-232 B.C.)

• Ashoka succeeded to the throne after the death of his father Bindusara in 273 B.C.
• According to the Buddhist tradition,
  --> ?Janapada Kalyani or Subhadrangi was his mother.
  --> He was appointed as a viceroy of Ujjain and Taxila while he was a prince.
• Ashoka was very cruel in his early life and captured the throne after killing his 99 brothers. But it appears an exaggerated figure.
• Ashoka himself speaks affectionately about his brothers, sisters, and relatives in his edicts.
• Ashoka was the first king in the Indian history who has left his records engraved on stones.
• The history of Ashoka’s reign can be reconstructed with the help of his inscriptions and some other literary sources.
• The Ashokan inscriptions are found at 47 places in different regions of India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.
• The inscriptions on rocks are called as the ‘Rock Edicts,’ and those on Pillars, ‘Pillar Edicts.’
• Ashoka’s name occurs only in copies of Minor Rock Edict-I found at three places in Karnataka and one in Madhya Pradesh. Whereas in all other inscriptions, he mentioned himself as ‘Devanampiya’ and ‘Piyadasi’ meaning beloved of the gods.
• Ashoka ‘s inscriptions were written in four different scripts, namely −
  --> Greek languages and scripts used in Afghanistan area;
  --> Aramaic languages and scripts used in west Asia;
  --> Prakrit language and Kharosthi script used in Pakistan area; and
  --> Prakrit language and Brahmi script used in rest of the inscriptions.

Kalinga War and its Impact

• The Rock Edict XIII describes brightly the horrors and miseries of Kalinga war and its impact on Ashoka’s life.
• The Rock Edict XIII describes that one lakh people were killed in this war, several lakhs perished and a lakh and a half were taken prisoners.
• These figures might be exaggerated, but it is clearly mentioned that this war had a devastating effect on the people of Kalinga. Likewise, this became the last battle fought by Ashoka.
• The panic of war completely changed the personality of Ashoka. He felt great regret for the killings of the war. He left the policy of aggression and adopted the policy for the welfare of people and animals
• Ashoka sent ambassadors of peace to the Greek kingdoms in west Asia and several other countries.
• Ashoka did not pursue the policy of peace for the sake of peace and under all conditions.
• Rajjukas was a class of officers appointed within the empire not only for rewarding people, but also punishing them if required.

Ashoka's Dhamma

• Ashoka's personal religion was Buddhism.
• In Bhabru rock edict, he says that he had full faith in Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha.
• Ashoka accepted Buddhism as his main faith, but he never forced Buddhist ideals on his subjects.
• Ashoka believed in unity among ethical and moral values of all sects. He showed great respect to all sects and faiths.
• In Rock Edict XII Ashoka says, "I honor all sects and both ascetics and laymen, with gifts and various forms of recognition". He pronounced his policy of equal respect to all religious sects very clearly.
• After the Kalinga War, the propagation of Dhamma became the utmost objective for Ashoka.
• Ashoka's edicts explained Dhamma as a 'Moral Law', a 'Common Code of Conduct,’ or an 'Ethical Order'. Further, he says that it is not a religion or a religious system.
• In Pillar Edict II, Ashoka puts a question to himself: "What is Dhamma?" Then he mentioned the two basic constituents of Dhamma as less evil and many good deeds.
• Ashoka explains evils as rage, cruelty, anger, pride, and envy that are to be avoided.
• Ashoka explains many good deeds as kindness, liberality, truthfulness, gentleness, self-control, purity of heart, attachment to morality, inner and outer purity. These good qualities are to be pursued ardently.
• Ashoka, in his Rock Edict XII, prescribes the following codes to be followed −
  --> Obedience to mother and father, elders, teachers and other respectable persons.
  -->Respect towards teachers.
  -->Proper treatment towards ascetics, relations, slaves, servants and dependents, the poor and miserable, friends, acquaintances, and companions.
  --> Liberality towards ascetics, friends, comrades, relatives, and the aged.
  --> Abstention from killing of living beings.
  --> Non-injury to all living creatures.
  --> Spending little and accumulating little wealth.
  --> Mildness in a case of all living creatures.
  --> Truthfulness.
  --> Attachment to morality.
  --> Purity of the heart.
• Dhamma is a code for moral and virtuous life. He never discussed god or soul or religion.
• Ashoka implanted a moral law i.e. Dhamma as the governing principle in every sphere of life.
• Ashoka practiced all these principles of Dhamma and asked his countrymen to −
  --> have control over their passion;
  --> cultivate purity of life and character in innermost thoughts;
  --> learn other religions;
  --> abstain from killing or injuring animals; and
  --> have regard for them;
  --> be charitable to all;
  --> be respectful to parents, teachers, relatives, friends, and ascetics;
  --> treat slaves and servant kindly; and
  --> tell the truth.
• Ashoka not only preached, but had actually practiced these principles. He gave up hunting and killing of animals.
• Ashoka made liberal donations to the Brahmans and ascetics of different religious sects.
• Ashoka established hospitals for humans and animals and constructed rest-houses. He also ordered wells to be dug and trees to be planted along the roads for welfare of the people.
• Ashoka adopted Buddhism after observing the brutality of the Kalinga war.
• Non-violence and non-injury to living beings is the cardinal doctrines of Buddhism.
• Ashoka appointed a special class of officials called ‘Dharmamahamatras’ whose sole responsibility was to propagate Dhamma among the people.
• Ashoka conducted ‘Dharmayatras’ (religious journey) and instructed his officials to do the same.
• To propagate Dhamma, he sends his missionaries to western Asia, Egypt, and Eastern Europe.
• Some of the foreign kings from whom Ashoka received the message of Buddhism were −
  --> Antiochus Theos of Syria
  --> Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt
  -->Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia
  --> Megas of Cyrene
  --> Alexander of Epirus
• Ashoka sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to propagate Buddhism in Sri Lanka.

Decline of Mauryan Empire

• Ashoka ruled for almost 40 years and died in 232 B.C.
• Soon after Ashoka’s death, the empire broke up and the decline of the Mauryan Empire set in.
• In a period of about 50 years after Ashoka’s death, seven kings followed him in succession
• The empire was divided into an eastern and western part. The western part was governed by Kunala, Samprati and others.
• The eastern part with southern India was governed by six successors of Mauryan kings from Dasarath to Brihadratha. They were having their capital at Pataliputra.
• The power and prestige of the Mauryan Empire were challenged by Andhras (in the south India) and continuous attacks of Greek king in the west.
• The king Brihadratha was killed by Pushyamitra who was the commander-in-chief of the army.
• The incident of the killing of the king in full view of the public, and in the presence of his army clearly reflects that the king neither enjoyed the loyalty of his own army nor the sympathy of the people.
• This is the only recorded incident in the history of India till the 12th century A.D., wherein the king was murdered and replaced.
• Pushyamitra ascended the throne, but he never declaring himself as the king rather retained the title of the Senapati.
• In a very dramatic way, the Mauryan Empire declined and disappeared just in 50 years after the death of Ashoka.

Age of Smaller Dynasties

• Apart from some important dynasties ruling in the post-Mauryan period in north India, there were a number of republics ruling smaller states. The information about these small dynasties is extracted from their coins on which their names were written.
• Following are some of the important small dynasties −
  Arjunayanas,
  Malavas,
  Audumbaras,
  Kunindas,
  Yaudheyas, etc
• Most of these dynasties (enumerated above), later on, became tributaries of the Gupta Dynasty and vanished altogether after the fourth century A.D

Satavahanas of Deccan

• Before the emergence of the Satavahanas in Maharashtra and Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas dynasties were ruled southern India the region was settled by megalithic people.
  
• The Satavahanas, also known as ‘Andhras’ (in Deccan region) covering the parts of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra was a powerful dynasty.
• The Andhras were ancient people and were mentioned in the Aitareya Brahmana also.
• The Greek writer Pliny mentions that the Andhras were powerful people who possessed a large number of villages and thirty towns, an army of one lakh infantry, two thousand cavalries and one thousand elephants.
• During the Mauryan age, they were part of the Mauryan Empire, but it appears that immediately after the fall of the dynasty, the Andhras declared themselves free.
• Simuka dynasty ruled from 235 B.C. to 213 B.C. and established Simuka dynasty.
• Simuka was succeeded by his brother Krishna.
• Satakarni-I was the third king. He made extensive conquests and performed two Ashvamedhayajna. The Nanaghat inscription described his achievements in details. He conquered western Malwa, Vidarbha, and Anupa (Narmada Valley). He is also referred to as the lord of ‘Dakshinapatha.’
• Satakarni-I’s name also occurs on one of the gateways of Sanchi stupa because substantial donations were made by the Satavahanas for the renovation and decoration of Sanchi stupas and monasteries.
• Satakarni-II ruled for about 56 years.
• Gautamiputra Satakarni gained Malwa from the Sungas.
• Nahapana had conquered the part of Satavahana territory after Satakarni-II. A large number of coins of Nahapana has been found in Nasik area.
• The Satavahanas became powerful again during the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni. His achievements are recorded in glowing terms in the Nasik inscription of Queen-mother, Gautami Balasri. This inscription was engraved after his death and in the nineteenth year of the reign of his son and successor Pulmavi II.
• In Nasik inscription, Gautamiputra Satakarni has been described as one who destroyed the Sakas, Yavanas, and Pahlavas. He overthrew Nahapana and restricted a large number of his silver coins. He also recovered northern Maharashtra, Konkan, Vidarbha, Saurashtra, and Malwa from the Sakas.
• Satakarni dedicated a cave in Nasik in the eighteenth year of his reign and granted some land to ascetics in the twenty-fourth year.
• Gautamiputra Satakarni is the first king bearing matronymic and this practice was followed by nearly all his successors.
• Gautamiputra was succeeded by his son Vasisthiputra Sri Pulmavi in about A.D. 130 and ruled for about twenty-four years.
• The coins and inscription of Pulmavi have been found in Andhra Pradesh. This shows that Andhra was the part of Satavahana Empire in the second century A.D. Perhaps, in order to save the Satavahana Empire from the onslaught of the Sakas, Pulmavi married the daughter of Saka ruler Rudradaman. But this Saka king defeated the next Satavahana ruler twice.
• Sri Yajna Satakarni (A.D. 165-195) was perhaps the last of the great Satavahana rulers. His inscriptions have been found in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh.
• From the distribution of his coins, it appears that he ruled over a large kingdom extending from the Bay of Bengal in the east to the Arabian Sea in the west. Thus he regained the land that the Sakas had conquered from his predecessors.
• Maritime trade and activities during his reign had been proved by the depiction of ship with a fish on his coins.
• The successors of Yajna were weak and unworthy to govern such a large empire. Hence, the Satavahana Empire collapsed especially when Abhiras seized Maharashtra and Ikshvakus and Pallavas appropriated the eastern provinces.

Chola Dynasty

• Three states, namely, Cholas, Cheras, and Pandya emerged in south India.
• Sangam literature believes that the dynasties of Chola, Chera, and Pandya belong to immemorial antiquity.

• The Cholas have occupied the region of Kaveri delta and the adjoining area. The region of Kanchi was also part of the Cholas kingdom.
  
• The Kingdom was situated towards the north-east of Pandya kingdom and it was also called as Cholamandalam in early medieval times.
• In the beginning, its capital was Uraiyur in Tiruchirapalli, but subsequently shifted to Kaveripattanam. It was called as ‘Puhar’ at that time.
• A Chola king, known as Elara, conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it for about 50 years during the middle of the 2nd century B.C.
• Karikala was a famous Chola king of the early time. He was credited because of his two achievements −
  --> He had defeated the joint forces of Chera and Pandya kings and
  --> He successful invaded Sri Lanka and ruled there.
• Karikala was defeated in a great battle at Venni near Tanjore by a confederacy of (about) a dozen rulers headed by Chera and Pandya kings.
• Karikala maintained a powerful navy and conquered Sri Lanka.
• Karikala built big irrigation channels and embankment about a 160 km along the river Kaveri.
• Karikala fortified the town and the famous sea part of Puhar at the mouth of the Kaveri.
• Karikala was a great patron of literature and education.
• He was a follower of Vedic religion and performed many Vedic sacrifices.
• The successors of Karikala were quite weak and family members squabbled for power and position therefore the Chola kingdom faced confusion and chaos after Karikala.
• Illanjetcenni was the only king after Karikala who is known. He had captured two fortresses from the Cheras. However, after Karikala, the Chola empire declined and the Cheras and Pandyas extended their territories.
• The Cholas were reduced to a small ruling family from about the 4th to the 9th century A.D.

Pandya Dynasty

• The Pandya kingdom was the second important kingdom in south India during this period. It occupied the region of modern districts of Tirunelveli, Ramnad, and Madurai in Tamil Nadu.
  
• The capital of Pandya kingdom was Madurai. The Pandyan kingdom was very wealthy and prosperous.
• The Sangam literature gives information and names of a few kings.
• Nedunjeliyan was a great Pandya king. He defeated the combined forces of Chera, Chola, and five other minor states in a war against him at Madurai.
• The Pandyan kings assembled literary assemblies called as ‘Sangam’.
• Nedunjeliyan had performed several Vedic sacrifices. He may be taken to have ruled around A. D. 210.
• The capital Madurai and the port city Korkai were the great centres of trade and commerce during the Pandyas’ reign.
• The traders profited from trade with the Roman Empire.
• Pandya kings even sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus and Trojan.

Chera Dynasty

• The Cheras were also known as ‘Keralaputras’ in the history. The Chera kingdom occupied the region of a narrow strip between the sea and the mountains of Konkan range

• The Chera rulers also occupied high position in the history of south India. Nedunjeral Adan was a famous Chera king. He conquered Kadambas with his capital at Vanavasi (near Goa). He also defeated the Yavanas.
• Nedunjeral Adan had a good relation with the Greeks and Romans who came in large numbers as traders and set up large colonies in south India.
• Nedunjeral Adan fought a battle with the father of the Chola king Karikala. In this battle, both the kings were killed.
• Nedunjeral Adan was called as Imayavaramban. The literary meaning of the term Imayavaramban is “one who had the Himalaya Mountains as the boundary of his kingdom." However, it seems to be mere exaggeration.
• Sengutturan was the greatest king of the Chera dynasty as mentioned in the Chera tradition. He had defeated the Chola and the Pandya kings
• The Chera power declined at the end of the 3rd century A.D. They again acquired power in the 8th century A.D.
• The important facts about the three early kingdoms of south India are −
  --> They constantly fought with each other;
  --> They made new alliances against the ones who became powerful; and
  --> They also fought regularly with Sri Lanka and ruled there at some point of time.

Period of Foreign Invaders

The invasion of Yavanas from the west was the important event in the history of ancient Indis. It started during the reign of Pushyamitra Sunga. Kalidasa also mentions about Vasumitra's conflict with Yavanas in his book Malavikagnimitram. Patanjali had also mentioned this invasion. Originally, the word ‘Yavana’ used for Ionian Greeks, but later it came to denote, all people of Greek nationality. The Yavanas were the first ones to establish foreign supremacy on Indian soil. The Yavanas came after several central Asian tribes who invaded India and established their political authority.

Indo-Greeks

• The arrival of the Yavanas in India marked by their invasion on the western border of India.
  
• After Alexander’s death, a large part of his empire came under the rule of his Generals.
• Bactria and Parthia, the adjoining areas of Iran were two main areas under the rule of Alexander’s Generals.
• Diodotus, the governor of Bactria, revolted in about 250 B.C. against the Greeks and proclaimed his independence.
• Euthydemus, Demetrius, Eucratides, and Menander were some important Indo-Greek kings.
• Menander, during the 165-145 B.C., was most illustrious among all the Indo-Greek rulers. His capital was Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Pakistan and he ruled for almost twenty years.
• Greek writers mentioned that Menander was a great ruler and his territory extended from Afghanistan to Uttar Pradesh in east and Gujarat in the west.
• Menander was converted to Buddhism by Buddhist monk Nagasena.
• Menander asked many questions related to philosophy and Buddhism to Nagasena. They were recorded together with Nagasena's answers in Milindapanho or the Questions of Milinda.
• The Indo-Greek rulers were the first one in the history of India, whose coins carried the portraits of kings and their names.
• Before the Indo-Greek rulers, the coins in India did not carry names or portraits of the kings and also Indo Greeks were the first rulers who issued gold coins.
• Their coins are known for the depiction of realistic and artistic portraits.

Parthians

• The Parthians were also known as Pahlavas. They were Iranian people. Few facts may be gathered from the coins and inscriptions. However, their history is not clear.
• Vonones was the earliest king of the Parthian dynasty. He captured power in Arachosia and Seistan and adopted the title of "great king of kings".
• Vonones was succeeded by Spalirises.
• Gondophernes was the greatest of the Parthian rulers. He ruled from A.D. 19 to AD 45.
• Gondophernes became master of the Saka-Pahalva area both in eastern Iran and north-western India for a short period.
• After Gondophernes, the Pahlava rule in India ended. They were replaced by the Kushanas.
• This fact is established by the excavations at Begram in Afghanistan where a large number of coins of Gondophernes was found.

Sakas

• The Indo-Greek rule in north-western India was destroyed by the Sakas.
• The Sakas are also known as the Scythians.
• Sakas or Scythians were nomadic tribes originally from central Asia.
• In about 165 B.C., Sakas were turned out of their original home by the Yueh-chi.
• Yueh-chi later came to be known as Kushanas.
• Sakas were also pushed out of their land and came to India.
• The departure made by the central Asian tribes was the result of the prevailing situations in central Asia and adjoining northwestern China.
• The construction of the Great Wall of China in the 3rd century B.C. left these tribes like Hiung-nu, Wu -sun and Yueh–chi, no option but to move towards south and west.
• The first migrants were Yueh-chi, they displaced Sakas.
• The Sakas invaded Bactria and Parthia and thereafter entered India through the Bolan Pass.
• The Sakas were divided into five branches and established themselves in various parts of north-western and northern India.
• The first branch settled in Afghanistan.
• The second branch settled in Punjab with Taxila as its capital.
• The third branch settled in Mathura.
• The fourth in Maharashtra and Saurashtra.
• The fifth in central India with Ujjain as its capital.
• The Sakas ruled in different areas from the 1st century B.C. to about 4th century A.D.
• Therefore, Sakas ruled in different parts of the country. However, the branch of Sakas who ruled in central and western India rose to prominence.
• Nahapana was the most prominent ruler of western India. His reference had been found in various inscriptions in Maharashtra and in the records of the Satavahanas.
• Rudradaman the most illustrious ruler of the central Indian branch. He ruled from (about) A.D. 130 to 150.
• Junagarh rock inscription was erected by Rudradaman.
• Junagarh inscription mentioned that his rule extended over a vast territory including the areas of Gujarat, Sindh, Saurashtra, north Konkan, Malwa, and some parts of Rajasthan.
• Rudradaman undertook the repairs of the Sudarsan lake dam. However, Sudarsan lake dam had been built by the provincial governer of Chandragupta Maurya in Kathiawad when it was damaged by heavy rains.
• Ujjayini was the capital of Rudradaman. It became a centre of culture and education.
• The Saka’s dynasty came to an end with the defeat of the last king in the hands of Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty, in about A.D. 390.

Kushanas

• Yueh-chi were a nomadic tribe settled on the north-western border of China as per accounts of the Chinese historians.
• Yueh-chi came in conflict with a neighbouring tribe known as Hiung-nu in the year 165 B.C. In this conflict, Yueh-chi were defeated and forced to move out of their land.
• They could not move towards china in the east because of the China Wall; therefore, they moved toward the west and south.
• In westwards movement, Yueh-chi came in conflict with another tribe called Wu-sun whom Yueh-chi defeated easily. Thereafter, Yueh-chi were divided into two groups as −
  --> Little Yueh-chi migrated to Tibet.
  --> Great Yueh-chi came to India.
• Yueh-chi met with the Sakas who occupied the territory of Bactria after defeating Wu–sun.
• The Saka's were defeated and forced to leave their land.
• Saka's came to India and the Yueh-chi settled down in the land of the Sakas.
• Yueh-chi people, lastly, gave up their nomadic life and adopted an agricultural and a settled way of life.
• The great Yueh-chi branch was divided into five branches.
• Chinese sources explained that the first great Yueh-chi king was Kujula Kadphises. He was also known as Kadphises I. He united all the five groups and established his authority over Afghanistan. He called himself 'great king'.
• Kujula Kadphises was also known as ‘Dharmathida’ and ‘Sachadharmathida’ (meaning one who believs in true faith). It is suggested that he was a Buddhist.
• Kadphises I was succeeded by his son Kadphises II. He extended Kushana’s territory upto Punjab, or perhaps even up to the Ganga Yamuna doab.
• Kadphises II issued gold and copper coins. He is referred as the great king and a devotee of Siva.
• On some of Kadphises II’s coins, Siva holding a trident and bull are shown.

Kanishk

• Kadphises II was succeeded by Kanishka. He was most known and greatest of all the Kushana kings.
• Kanishka ascended to throne in A.D. 78 and he founded the Saka era.
• Kaniskha ruled from A.D. 78-101.
• Kanishka's empire extended from Khotan in the northwest to Benaras in the east and Kashmir in the north to Saurashtra and Malwa in the south.
• Purushapur i.e. modern Peshawar was the capital of the vast empire of Kanishka.
• The Coins of Kanishka had been found from almost all over the above mentioned area.
• Kanishka was a follower of Buddhism. The 4th Buddhist council was held during Kanishka's reign.
• Kanishka's court was adorned by the presence of scholars such as Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Charaka, and Nagarjuna.
• Taxila and Mathura emerged as the great centres of art and culture during the reign of Kanishka.
• His successors were Vasishka, Huvishka, Vasudeva, and some others.
• Vasudeva is a purely Indian name and it suggests the complete Indianisation of Kushana. Vasudeva was a Saiva, though his name is after the Vaishnava deity.
• The decline of Kushana power begins after Vasishka. However, Kushanas continued to rule up to the 4th century A.D. over small kingdom, independently under some