The years between 1922 and 1928 witnessed a desperate struggle for power between Trotsky and Stalin. Stalin used his power as the then General Secretary of the Communist Party to get rid of Trotsky and the other opposition.

In opposition to Trotsky who advocated world revolution, Stalin maintained that socialism was possible within one country. An independent socialist state could indeed exist. This did not mean that Stalin abandoned the idea of a world revolution. What it did mean is that until the world revolution did take place, Russia would have to serve as the world's shining example of socialism.

After defeating Trotsky and ridding the party of all his rivals, Stalin began to build up Russia. As he said, "Other countries are 50 years ahead of Russia. We must make this up in 10 years." As such, he had two main aims:

(i) A centrally-planned economy called a command economy;

(ii) A totalitarian system of government.

A centrally-planned economy

STALIN'S ECONOMIC AIMS: Stalin wanted the USSR to modernize at a fast rate. The industry had to be developed to such an extent that the country, which had all along depended mostly on agriculture or farming, had to be changed such that it now depended on industry more. Although Russia was recovering from war, its production from heavy industries was still low compared to other countries. Stalin felt that this needed to be improved if they were to survive any possible attack that might come from the capitalist West attempting to destroy Communist Russia. The USSR needed to invest in materials like coal, iron, steel and power to defend itself properly. Rapid industrialization was also needed for defence as the USSR was surrounded, as Stalin said, by governments that hated Communism: Romania, Iran, Finland and Poland.

In order to become a strong industrial economy, the agricultural sector had to be modernized and made more efficient so it could produce enough food to meet the needs of the workforce. It would also be able to raise money needed for industrialization. Surplus had to be exported and money used to buy machinery and such. Fewer workers could then be used on the farms and industrialization could take place more rapidly by transferring more workers from the countryside to the factories. This rapid industrialization would also bring about two political results:

• Communist support would increase as the workers were the Communists' greatest supporters;
• Remaining opposition would be eliminated, in particular the class of rich peasants, the kulaks.

MAIN FEATURES OF A CENTRALLY-PLANNED ECONOMY

During this period, Russia's economy was completely transformed. The state planned the entire economy through the State Planning Commission, or Gosplan. They issued instructions and orders, commands that were then passed down to factories, businesses or farms. They drew up a series or plans which Stalin dubbed, the Five Year Plans.

The three Five-Year Plans set targets and goals that the industry and agriculture had to achieve. In practice, the emphasis was on achieving more than the set targets rather than meeting them. Such a system greatly discouraged individual initiative. For example, a factory manager received his commands and just carried them out to the letter.

The government controlled the resources it needed to achieve the economic targets. Factories, mines, transport and farms were owned by the state. The government exercised tight control over the labour force. Ordinary workers were harshly disciplined and poor workmanship and absence made things worse.

Millions of peasants were directed into the towns and cities to work in factories and mines. These and other heavy industries were given high priority in the first Five Year Plan. Consumer industries were neglected and agriculture was reorganized to suit this.

A totalitarian government

A totalitarian government is one where there is only one party allowed - the ruling party. In Stalin's Russia this meant that the Communist Party was supreme. All criticism and opposition is eliminated. The people are expected to be totally loyal to the state and to the person at the head of the government.

Stalin ruled as a dictator, commanding his people with absolute power. He conducted many purges against his rivals and introduced a new constitution which reinforced his power. The secret police and even a personality cult helped to build up his image and keep him in power.

Reasons for the purges

Under Stalin's totalitarian government of the 1930s, many purges were held, killing millions. The main reason for the purges was because Stalin felt insecure. People were questioning his leadership, his methods and his policies.

Many people were unhappy with the harshness of his Five Year Plans. He also faced criticism from within the party. Politicians who were overly critical of Stalin were at risk, but a few took their chances. Sergei Kirov was one such man. He had been one of Stalin's closest supporters on the Politburo and was, in 1934, the party boss of Leningrad. At the 1934 Party Congress, Kirov switched sides and began criticizing Stalin and his harsh policies. Fearless ones warmly applauded Kirov as they agreed, while other less daring ones remained silent. Stalin's position in the Central Committee was under siege, as Kirov pulled in the highest number of votes while Stalin got the lowest. He only managed to stay in as there were just as many vacancies as there were candidates.

As such, Stalin decided to take action against Kirov who was emerging as a potential rival for leadership of the Party. On 1st December 1934, Stalin had Kirov assassinated. On the same day, Stalin passed a law that ordered anyone accused of terrorism and plots against the government was to be arrested and executed immediately after conviction. This law gave Stalin the chance to carry out the Great Purges properly and easily without any resistance.

The great purges

Stalin used this 1934 law to launch a massive purge of all the people, including Communist Party members and top government officials, who were potential rivals or threats to him, those who criticized his policies and even the innocent few.

Stalin held show trials for those party members who opposed him. These trials were meant for the people to see and serve as a warning to any people planning to oppose Stalin.

Hundreds of thousands of people were executed, including rival communists, political opposition, government officials, military officers and also ordinary workers and peasants, while millions were sent to labour camps where they often died.

The Great Purges had affected Russians all over as they lived in constant fear that they would be arrested and jailed, tortured or shot. It was common for ordinary citizens to accuse their neighbors or even family members of criticizing Stalin so as to project a patriotic and loyal image of them in the hope that they would not be killed. In this way, all sectors of society were affected. People of every profession and background were purged.

Effects of the purges

The most important political effect was, naturally, that Stalin became even more powerful than before. He had got rid of his political rivals and nobody dared to challenge his authority. Even when Russia was doing badly in World War II, his leadership was not challenged. He introduced a new constitution called the Stalin Constitution. This placed him firmly in control of the USSR.

A serious military effect was that the purges severely weakened the armed forces by removing many capable leaders who had to be replaced by inexperienced officers. This contributed greatly to the slow start that the Russians made in World War II.

In economic terms, the purges slowed down economic development, what with all the internal squabbling and fear in the country. Many industrial workers and high-end employees were killed, thus affecting worker morale and productivity.

Lastly, the purges made life extremely difficult for the people - the millions of citizens. Everyone lived in fear and terror, with the secret police patrolling the area. Apart from those sent to the labour camps where conditions were appalling and most people died or disappeared, the family and friends that they left behind suffered because they did not know what had happened to their loved ones.

The Stalin constitution

Stalin claimed this constitution was the fairest in the world. Everyone over 18 was allowed to vote every four years for a national assembly called the Supreme Soviet. This assembly met for two weeks a year.

It elected a smaller body, the Praesidium, to act on its behalf. It also chose a Council of Ministers responsible for running the country. Stalin, as Secretary or leader of the Communist Party, led this cabinet. Only members of the Communist Party could be elected to the various posts. Stalin controlled party membership, and thus chose those people who liked and supported him and his position. Although the constitution was supposed to be democratic, it is obvious that Stalin had the real power.

Stalin and the Communist Party tried to make themselves look good by recognizing the rights of the people to free medical care, to work, to education and political rights, such as freedom of speech and freedom of press. However, all these "freedoms" had to be expressed according to Stalin's and the party's wishes.

The cult of Stalin

Throughout the 1930s propaganda was used to build up Stalin's image. Like a religious worship, a cult of Stalin was formed. Stalin was like a godlike leader to the people, praised in the newspapers, books and in films and posters. Poems published in Pravda[1] praised his deeds, speeches exalting his skills, his modesty, his wisdom and his brilliance. People who attended these meetings were careful to applaud long and loudly, and the person who stopped first would most likely be arrested as it showed great disrespect and disloyalty to Stalin.

Social and cultural policies

Education was closely regulated. It was free and compulsory, and tended to be indoctrinated as it sought to mould people into the Communist way of thinking. The secret police ensured that Communist ideology was taught.

The arts were controlled by the state which used them for propaganda purposes. Pressure was put on writers to write novels about the glorious achievements of the government. Musicians, artists and film-makers who refused to follow the state's direction were persecuted or purged.

The Russian Orthodox Church was also persecuted by Stalin. The totalitarian government could not tolerate people being loyal to other influential institutions such as the Church. Churches were closed down and religious leaders were persecuted. However, the Church continued to survive.

The 1930s was a period of terror and fear. Stalin and the Communist Party ruled the USSR with an iron fist and as a dictatorship. They may have overthrown the Tsar, but this government was in little way different.