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Like Germany, Italy was also divided into a number of states. The major states in the early 19th century Italy were Sardinia, Lombardy, Venetia, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Sicily and Naples), Papal States, Tuscany, Parma and Modena. Of these the most powerful was the kingdom of Sardinia. Venetia and Lombardy were under Austrian occupation. Thus the Italian people were faced with the task of expelling the Austrians and forcing the rulers of independent states to unite
The Italian unification was a long process, which was achieved by a variety of treaties, as well as a variety of individuals. The most important persons are considered to be Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi.
The struggle for Italian independence and unification was organized by the two famous revolutionaries of Italy— Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi.
The movement led by them is known as the ‘Young Italy’ movement. It aimed at the independence and unification of Italy and the establishment of a republic there. However, the revolutions of 1830 ended in failure.
In 1848, as in other parts of Europe, revolutionary uprisings had broken out in Italy and the rulers were forced to grant certain democratic reforms to the people. Republican Commune was declared in Rome which was headed by Mazzini. However, the revolutions were ultimately suppressed and the commune too fell. The goal of independence and unification was still distant.
The King of Sardinia had introduced many reforms in the political system of his kingdom after the revolution of 1848. After 1848, his prime minister, Count Cavour, took the initiative of uniting Italy under the leadership of Sardinia.
Cavour’s policy in some ways was similar to that followed by Bismarck in Germany. Hoping to gain the support of Britain and France, he entered the Crimean war in 1853-56 against Russia even though Sardinia had no dispute with Russia. However, nothing came out of this war.
In 1859, Cavour entered into an alliance with Louis Bonaparte and went to war with Austria. Although France soon withdrew from the war, Austria was ousted from Lombardy, which was taken over by Sardinia. Tuscany, Modena, Parma and the Papal States of the north also joined Sardinia.
Venetia, however, was still under Austrian occupation. The other states that remained to be united with Sardinia were the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and Rome which was under the rule of the Pope.
Meanwhile an uprising had broken out in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Garibaldi marched into the island of Sicily with his revolutionary fighters and liberated it from the rule of the king within three months. Then he marched to Naples in support of the revolt that had already broken out there. By the end Of November 1860 the entire Kingdom of the Two Sicilies had been liberated.
While Cavour was annexing the Italian States from north, bypassing the Papal States, Garibaldi surrendered the liberated states in the South to the King of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel II, who then took the title of King of Italy in 1861.
Rome was still outside the kingdom of Italy. It was ruled over by the Pope with the help of the French soldiers provided to him by Louis Bonaparte. When the war between France and Prussia broke out in 1870, Bonaparte was forced to withdraw his troops from Rome. Italian soldiers occupied the city of Rome in 1870, and in July 1871, Rome became the capital of united Italy.
The importance of all three men contribution to the unification of Italy is unquestioned. Mazzini seen as a true Nationalist and creator of the ´young Italy`, which used democracy instead of Christianity, longing for the Unification and going beyond the middle class, to the actual essence of Italy. Cavour, who fought for Piedmont, rather than for the unification of Italy, helped in spreading Italian influence over different nations and therefore was responsible for driving out major French influences. Garibaldi was the hero, seen as a humanist at last, changing his beliefs but remaining true to his main goal; the unification of Italy, which he achieved at last. Their contributions were of different importance, but put together, led to the overall Unification.
In spite of the important role played by democratic and revolutionary leaders such as Mazzini and Garibaldi in the struggle for Italy’s liberation and unification, Italy also, like Germany, became a monarchy.
Revolution in Spain gave advantage to the colonies in S. America to throw off the yoke of Spanish rule. Inspiration came from the newly formed republic to the north, the United States. United States also stood up to protect the Americas from foreign intervention in the famous Monroe Doctrine in 1823. Britain too supported the revolutions so it could break Spain's mercantilist monopoly on trade. Spain could not ignore the power of the British navy, so its American colonies went free.
Independence brought two sources of instability to Latin America. Most Spanish bureaucrats fled back to Spain, leaving few trained bureaucrats to handle government business. As a result, the armies that won the revolutions were often the only means of keeping matters under control and became very powerful.
Second, with Latin American markets now open for free trade were exploited by Britain and other European countries for production of one type of commodity in each nation, such as beef in Argentina or copper in Chile. Such mono-economies were too dependent on international markets for its one product. Therefore, if the market for their product fell, their economy would have nothing else to fall back upon.
These factors led to unstable economic and political structures in Latin America encouraging rule by military dictatorships. Misrule and poor economic conditions led to more military coups and revolutions, that would further destabilize the economy and the new government, leading to more revolutions.
After the revolts of 1830 had been suppressed, the revolutionary movements in Europe again gained momentum. In 1848, revolutions broke out in almost every country of Europe, which dealt a mortal blow to the countries of the Holy Alliance. Early in 1848, there was a revolt in Italy.
In February, revolution broke out in France and Louis Philippe who had been installed as king after the 1830 revolution fled away. France again became a republic for some time but power was usurped by Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, popularly known as Napoleon III, a nephew of Napoleon, in 1852. France finally became a republic in 1871 when the empire of Louis Bonaparte collapsed.
The revolution in France was soon followed by uprisings in many states of Germany. The rulers of many German states, including Prussia which was a member of the Holy Alliance, agreed to introduce many reforms. Simultaneously, there were uprisings in towns of the Austrian empire, another member of the Holy Alliance.
The revolutions of 1848 failed to overthrow the established oppressive regimes of Europe though they considerably weakened them. The most significant aspect of the 1848 revolutions was the emergence of a new political force in Europe.
The workers were a major force in the revolutions of 1848. Their aim was not merely the overthrow of autocracies but also the destruction of the economic system that had grown with the Industrial Revolution— capitalism. Other participants in the revolutions— the capitalists, the merchants and other people belonging to the middle class—wanted constitutional reforms. They looked upon the demands of the workers for social revolution with horror.
The first successful revolution that overthrew the autocratic monarchy took place in England in the seventeenth century. This had resulted in the establishment of the supremacy of Parliament in England. However, Parliament at that time was not a truly democratic institution.
The right to vote was limited to a very small percentage of the population. Throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the demand for making Parliament’ a democratic institution grew. Campaigns to extend the right to vote to every citizen were waged. These campaigns were led by radical leaders who represented the interests of workers, and the city poor, and by those representing the industrialists.
Until 1832, representation in Parliament was based not on population but on election districts— counties and boroughs. Many of these were no longer populated excepted for a few houses, while new towns and cities with large populations had no representation. Under the Act of 1832, the old unpopulated areas or ‘rotten boroughs’, as they were called, were abolished and their seats were given to new towns and cities. At this time also, the right to vote was extended to those who owned or rented a house of a certain value in the towns or in villages. This formed only about 10 per cent of the population.
The Chartist Movement which was launched to get the right to vote for workers. Though the movement declined in the 1850′s, it left its influence and through the Acts of 1867. 1882, 1918 and 1929, all adult citizens were enfranchised. Thus it was over 200 years after Parliament became supreme that it became also a truly representative body of the British people.
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