society during 9-12th century

A number of popular saints called nayanars (Shiva) and alvars (Vishnu) flourished in Tamil area between 6th and 9th century. The writings of these saints which were collected into eleven volumes under the name Tirummais are considered sacred and are looked upon as fifth Veda.

Kambana who wrote Ramavatrama was one of the greatest figures of Tamil poetry. His Ramayan is known as Kamba Ramayana.

In northern India, this period is considered a period of Stagnation and even of decline. The set back to trade and commerce was due to the collapse of Roman Empire in the west.

One of the most prominent feature of this period was growth of feudalism.

The disabilities from which the lower caste suffered increased during this period.

Marriages between different castes were frowned upon.

According to a writer Parasara, eating a Sudra’s food, association with a Sudra sitting on the same seat with Sudra are acts which drag down even the noblest person.

Women were generally considered to be mentally inferior. Women continued to be denied the right to study the Vedas. The marriage age of girls was lowered thereby destroying their opportunities for higher education.

Remarriage was allowed under certain conditions, when the husband desereted or was impotant or adapted the life of recluse.

With the growth of property rights in land, the property rights of women also increased. In order to preserve the property of a family, women were given right to inherit the property of their male relations. The practice of Sati was in vogue.The Matsya Purana even authorized the husband to beat his erring wife with rope or spilt bamboo. Some advance was made in field of Mathematics. The Lilawati of Bhaskar II remained a standard book for long time.

The Sultunate Period

Architecture and Literature (Sultanate period)

Alauddin Khilji was responsible for construction of Jamaat Khan Masjid at the Dargha of Nizamuddin Auliya and Alai Drawaza at Qutub. The other monuments at Delhi were city of Siri and the Hauzi-I-Alai or Hauzi-I-Khas tanki. He also constructed palace of thousand pillars called Hazar Situn.

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq founded the city of tughlaqabad.

Muhammad Tuglaq founded the small fortreses of Adilabad and city of Jahanpanah.

Firoz Shah Tuglq was responsible for the foundation of cities of Jaunpur, Fathehabad and Hisar Firuza. At Delhi he built the palace for of Firozabad.

Another monument of Tughlaq period is tomb of Saint Kabir-ud-din Auliya. It is known as Lal Gumbad constructed by nasir-ud-din Mahmud Shah.

The best example of architecture during the period of Sayyuid and Lodhi kings are tombs of kings and nobles, the most important among them are the tombs of Bare Khan and Chote Khan, the Bara gumbad, Shish Gumbad. The tomb of Shihad-ud-din Taj Khan, Dadi ka gumbad and Poti ka gumbad.

Indo – islamic architecture

It had Persian, Greek, Chinese and Mongoloid influence. It initially had Mongoloid influence and showed the conflict between Hindu system and Islamic formal mind. Later the differences merged in the united effort of craftsmanship and led to cooperation and collectivism.

The Muslims introduced.

Arches based on 'true arch principle'

Minarets (minar).

Scientific Formulae.

Mortar as cementing agent.

Artistic calligraphy.

Jaliwork.

THE RELIGIOUS STRUCTURES includes:-

Mosque (Masjid)

Tomb (Maqbara)        ,

Mosque

Elements of a Mosque are -

• Minbar (Pulpit)- is a platform attached to the Miharab having series of steps for Imam to stand and lead the Namaz.
• Mihrab (Prayer niche in the centre of western wall facing Mecca)
• Aiwan (Prayer Hall)
• Haud (Ablution Tank)(Ablution is the act of washing or cleansing; specifically, the washing of the body, or some part of it, as a religious rite.)
• Sahn or Sehan (open Courtyard)
• Riwaq (Arcade)
• Minar (Minaret)

Tomb

It was a new kind of structure introduced by the Muslims which contain the grave. It always has an entrance from the southern side.

• Rauza - is a tomb/mausoleum, generaly situated in a garden and its significance is architectural rather than religious.
• Makbara - is a chamber which contains a grave.
• Cenotaph - is a tombstone without actual grave.

The sultanate period

The Sultanate period brought to India new styles of art and architecture which were soon absorbed into the existing set up. A number of factors were responsible for events to move in such a direction. The existing Indian styles and the new ideas had many common features, which allowed them to adapt to one another. For instance both the temple and mosque had large open courtyards. Also many temples were converted in mosques by the foreign invaders, and this created a blend of Indian as well as foreign styles.The lndo-lslamic architecture during the Sultanate period can be further classified into two parts based on their styles.

(a) Imperial or Delhi               (b) Provincial

The Imperial Style witnessed continuous architectural evolution viz.

1. Slaves          2. Khaljis          3. Tughlaqs                  4. Lodis

Slaves: The architectural phase under the slaves exhibit elements of confrontation between the Hindus and Muslim world. It was a phase of introduction of Muslim architectural elements and use of Hindu motives, raw material and ideas in building activities.The famous monuments are:-

Qutab Minar, with four projecting balconies and five stories tapering as they go up is the most famous. It was built by lltutmish. Uppermost two stories of this minar is round rather than with alternating flute and flanges and is of later addition by Firoz ShahTughlaq, and is faced with marble ratherthan red sand stone which has been usedforthe first three stories. It has symmetry and rich ornamentation.The British later added railings to the projecting balconies.

Arhai Din-Ka-Jhopra in Ajmer closely resembles Quwatul-lslam Mosque in style and construction. It is more spacious and dignified. There is an exclusively carved mihrab of white marble in the west Hall.

Tomb of Sultan GTiari, near Mehrauli in Delhi is unique in plan and form. It was built by lltutmish. It has square chamber and octagonal flat roof with round towers atthe four corners. It resembles a small fortress and is the first monumental Tomb in India. It used the Gupta temple structures as raw material.

Balban’s Tomb - Shows the first example of true voussoired arch.

Khaljis: Under Khalji’s there were a lots of building activities at Siri. Some of the famous structures of this period are -

Incomplete tower just near Qutab Minar which was supposed to be twice the height of Qutab Minar.

Alai - Darwaja near Qutab Minar with excellent calligraphy and intricate designs uses horse shoe ‘keel’arch for the first time.

Jamat Khana Masjid - earliest example of a mosque built on wholly Muslim ideas. It used scientific arches and dome.

Tughlaqs: Most of the buildings or structures of this period are found at Tughlaqabad in Delhi.

Features -

• Buildings were placed on a platform.
• Tomb had fort like appearance.
• Underground chambers were constructed.
• Tall gateways and towers.
• Sloping walls, Batter gave strength solidity to buildings.
• Use of grey sandstone, rubble and piaster.
• Use of minimum decoration.
• Stress on strength and austerity as a reaction to Khalji decoration.
• During Firoz Shah Tughlaq, the Principle of Arch, lintel and beam combination was used showing Tartar influence.

Lodis: Under Lodis there was an emergence of independent style. It was more elegant.

Features-

• Use of Double Dome.
• Use of thick walls.
• Enameled tiles were used for decoration showing the Persian influence.

Mughal period

Babur

He criticized Indian art and architecture and invited Sinan from Persia and employed Indian masons. He built few mosques at Panipath, Rohikhand, Agra and Ayodhya. None of these were of architectural significance. The mosque at Ayodhya became controversial and was destroyed in Dec. 1992.

Humayun

He had no time for building activities due to his troubled life. Only one mosque at Fathebad in Punjab decorated with Persian tiles remain. He completed the Jamali-Kamali Masjid at Mehrauli which had been commenced during Babur's reign.

Akbar

He was a great builder. His architecture was nationalist in character .borrowing freely from Rajputs and others. His building activities can be seen at Agra, FatehpurSikari and Lahore.

Humayun’s tomb -shows first real mughal style. Ground plan is Indian Persian tiles and white marble have been used. It has a swelling double dome with high neck. It is first of the Mughal scheme of tomb - gardens.

Foreign influence can be seen in -1. square plan with flattened corners 2. Octagonal Central Chamber. 3. Double dome treatment.Taj Mahal was inspired by this monument therefore it is called the precursor of Taj Mahal.

Agra Fort - irregular semicircle in plan, masculine in appearance. Has massive walls and borrowed the features from Gwalior Fort. Jahangiri Mahal was built by Akbar and rest of the buildings in this fort belong to Shah Jahan which are marked by liberal use of marbles featuring:-

• Use of Red sandstone and limited use of white marble.
• Liberal outlook of the building and catholicity of taste:
• Use of trabeate and arcuate, systems for decorations.

Fatehpur Sikri - about 40 kms form Agra is a ghost town now. It is built in red sandstone. The buildings found here are of official, residential and religions uses. It has gateways and a lake. The notable structures are:-

Panch Mahal-which shows the influence of Bengal and Gujrat. It is pyramidal in shape with open pavillions, decorated pillars, fanciful kiosks and balconies. ‘Persian influence1 can be seen in the blue glazed tiles.

Buland Darwaza ­-- The style is of half dome portal. Smaller gates are found in the rear wall showing Iranian influence.

Tomb of Sheikh Salim chisti- which Is built of white marble and in famous for its jali (marble screen)

Mariam’s place is of Persian Style.

Jodha Bai’s palace and BirbaTs palace show Jain and Gujrati influence.

Diwan-i-Khas’central pillar with suspended radiating bridges.

Jahangir

During his regime Akbar’s Mausoleum at Sikandra was built which is famous for its massive terrace. It has three storeys open courtyard with kiosks and pavilions. The material used is red sandstone.The topmost storey is made of Marble. The main enterance has two minars fused on the corners which is a feature to be seen forthe first time in the Mughal monuments.

Shah Jahan

The structures built during his period when compared with that of Akbar’s seem inferior in grandeur and originality but superior in lavish display of rich and skillful decorations. They reflect jewellery work on bigger scale and faminine beauty is its main characteristic.

Mosque building reached its climax under Shah Jahan e.g. Moti Masjid (of marble) and Jama Masjid (of red sandstone) designed by Ustad Khalil.

At Agra Fort - there is use of white marble especially in Moti masjid and Musamman Burj. Other buildings include Diwan-i-Am, Diwani-i-Khas, Khas Mahal and Shish Mahal.

The Red Fort (Delhi) - has irregular octagonal plan. With two beautiful gateways viz. Lahore and Delhi Gate. The famous buildings here are Moti Mahal, Hira Mahal, Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am, Diwan-i-Khas. Diwan-i-khas is said to be Paradise on earth. The Hammam of Rang Mahal is exclusively decorated in marble. Eight types of calligraphy were employed for decoration purpose. Text of Quaran is quoted. Vase designs with mosaic ornamentation have been used.

Shah Jahan’s contribution towards Indian art is epitomized by the most famous Taj Mahal at Agra. Ustad Isa is said to be the architect and it took 22 yrs to build this structure. It is built on the line of Humayun’s tomb. The octagonal walls support the dome. Marble and !petra dura1 have been lavishly used.

It is a symmetrical garden tomb. It has a double dome which is bulbous in outline but constricted atthe neck. Four white marble minarets with four storys have been deployed atthe 4 corners. Beautiful octagonals Kiosks are placed atthe corners.

The garden, the platform, the tomb with four minutes, all combine to give a composite wh6le.

Aurangzeb

He was economy minded and thus very few buildings are credited to him. Bibi-ka-Maqbara (Rabia ud Dauran) an imitation of Taj at Aurangabad, Badshahi Mosque at Lahore and Moti Masjid at Lai Quila, Delhi are the three specimens of Aurangezb’s contribution towards Mughal architecture.

Post-mughal style of architecture

AVADH (OUDH) STYLE

During the later half of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century, a distinct form of architecture flourished under the Nawabs of Avadh (Oudh), whose first manifestation was noticed in the form of Safdar Jung's tomb, built in the honour of Safdar Jung (1739-1753), who was the nephew of the first Nawab of Oudh.  The city of Lucknow witnessed large building enterprises under Nawab Asif-ud-Daula (1775-1795). The most representative architectural achievement of this period is the Bara Imambara built by the Nawab in 1784.  Absence of pillars in the main hall and simplicity of style and symmetry are its unique features.  On the western side of the Bara Imambara is the Rumi Darwaza  in which ornamental designs radiate from the base to the top on both the sides in the most expressive manner. A 67-metre clock tower was built near the Rumi Darwaza in 1881. The Chota Imambara or Husainabad Imambara, built by Muhammad Ali Shah as his tomb, and the Shahnajaf Imambara, housing the tomb of Nawab Ghaziuddin Haidar are other note-worthy buildingsfollowing this style of architecture.

Towards the middle of the 19th century, the architectural style of Avadh began to be impregnated with elements from European sources.  Major General Claude Martin (1735-1800) built a large and pretentious building at Lucknow, then known as "Constantia", which was one of the first large buildings of the European style built in North India.  This building, which had several Palladian elements, set the tone for the development of a hybrid style of architecture in Lucknow depicting a degenerative combination of Mughal and Gothic styles.  The best examples of this style of architecture are the Chattar Manzil built by Nawab Naziruddin Haider and the Kaiser Bagh built by Nawab Wajid Ali Shah between 1845 and 1850.  The Chattar Manzil is an imposing building, whose main attractions are the underground rooms and a beautifuldome surrounded by a gilt umbrella. The Kaiser Bagh is a quadrangular park with abaradari (pavilion) and yellow-coloured buildings on three sides.  The Roshanwali Kotiand the Begum Koti at Hazratgunj are other buildings where the Italian style is more prominent.

PUNJAB STYLE

In Punjab a distinct style of architecture developed under the influence of the Mughal style.  It was characterised by certain indigenous features like the multiplicity of chattris or kiosks, the use of fluted dome generally covered with copper or brass-gilt and enrichment of arches by numerous foliations.  This architecture was best manifested in the construction of the Golden Temple at Amritsar in 1764 built by the fourth Sikh Guru Ramdas.