A

Abiotic stress. Outside (nonliving) factors which can cause harmful effects to plants, such as soil conditions, drought, and extreme temperatures.

Activated sludge method. A method of sewage treatment in which wastes are degraded by complex populations of aerobic microorganisms.

Advanced waste treatment. The removal of non carbonaceous materials such as excess phosphorus and nitrogen. The term implies treatment beyond secondary treatment, and advanced treatment is most effective after the organic matter has been removed.

Aerobes. Organisms that can only exist with free oxygen, i.e. that have aerobing breathing.

Aerobic organisms. Organisms that can utilize oxygen as the final electron acceptor during metabolism.

Agar. A gelatinous polysaccharide, extracted from Ceylon moss that is used to prepare solid media for cultivating bacteria.

Agro ecosystem. A community of microorganisms, plants and animals, together with their abiotic environment, that occurs on farmed land, and including the crop species.

Aerobe. A microorganism that grows in the presence of oxygen..

Agrobacterium. A genus of bacteria that includes several plant pathogenic species, causing tumour-like symptoms

Air pollution. Air is made up of a number of gases, mostly nitrogen and oxygen and, in smaller amounts, water vapour, carbon dioxide and argon and other trace gases. Air pollution occurs when harmful chemicals and particles are emitted to the air – due to human activity or natural forces – at a concentration that interferes with human health or welfare or that harms the environment in other ways.

Algal biomass. Single-celled plants (e.g. Chlorella spp. and Spirulina spp.) grown

Algae. Simple rootless plants that grow in sunlit waters in proportion to the amount of available nutrients. They can affect water quality adversely by lowering the dissolved oxygen in the water. They are food for fish and small aquatic animals. (Source: US EPA)

Algal Blooms. Sudden spurts of algal growth, which can affect water quality adversely and indicate potentially hazardous changes in local water chemistry. (Source: US EPA)

Ammonia fertilizer. A material with a high concentration of nitrogen compounds put on soil to stimulate plant growth.

Anabolism. The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones. All biosynthetic reactions in a living organism.

Anaerobe. An organism that grows in the absence of oxygen. See Aerobe.

Antimicrobial agent. Any chemical or biological agent that harms the growth of microorganisms..

B

Bacillus thuringiensis (Abbreviation: Bt). A bacterium that produces a toxin against certain insects, particularly Coloeopteraand Lepidoptera; a major means of insecticide for organic farming. Some of the toxin genes are important for transgenic approaches to crop protection.

Bacterium. A single-celled, microscopic prokaryotic organism: a single cell organism without a distinct nucleus.

Baculovirus. A type of virus that specifically infects insect cells.

Bioaccumulation. A problem that can arise when a stable chemical such as a heavy metal or DDT is introduced into a natural environment. Where there are no agents present able to biodegrade it, its concentration can increase as it passes up the food chain and higher organisms may suffer toxic effects. This phenomenon may be employed beneficially for the removal of toxic metals from wastewater, and for bioremediation.

Biocides. Agents that kill living organisms . Sometimes the term is used as a synonym for pesticides.

Biocontrol. Pest control by biological means. Any process using deliberately introduced living organisms to restrain the growth and development of other organisms, such as the introduction of predatory insects to control an insect pest. Synonym:biological control.

Bioconversion. Conversion of one chemical into another by living organisms, as opposed to their conversion by isolated enzymes or fixed cells, or by chemical processes. Particularly useful for introducing chemical changes at specific points in large and complex molecules.

Biodegradation. The breakdown of substances by microorganisms. Mainly aerobic bacteria.

Biodegradable. Capable of being biodegraded.

Biodegrade. The breakdown by micro-organisms of a compound to simpler chemicals. Materials that are easily biodegraded are colloquially termed biodegradable.

Biodiesel. An alternative fuel for use in diesel engines that is made from natural renewable sources such animal fats or vegetable oils, and does not contain petroleum. It has similar properties to petroleum but releases fewer environmental pollutants in its emissions. Biodiesel can be used in diesel engines with little or no modifications, either as a diesel fuel substitute, or added to petroleum-based fuels to reduce their polluting effect. Examples include oils from soybeans, rapeseed, sunflowers or animal tallow.

Bioenergy. Energy choices using a wide range of biomass sources (for example, agriculture, forestry, industry and municipal waste) and conversion technologies such as fermentation (alcohol production) and co-firing (co-combustion of biomass and coal). Also identifies linkages to wider sustainable development outcomes, critical economic, environmental and security benefits (such as adding value to farm, forestry and other industries) and reducing fossil fuel use (product displacement), waste streams, emission of greenhouse gases and other pollutants.

Bioengineering. Engineering applied to biological and medical systems, such as biomechanics, biomaterials and biosensors. Bioengineering also includes biomedical engineering, as in the development of aids or replacements for defective or missing body organs.

 Bio-energetics The study of the flow and the transformation of energy that occur in living organisms.

Bio-enrichment Adding nutrients or oxygen to increase microbial breakdown of pollutants.

Biological control. The control of a population of one organism by another organism. Generally the controlling organism is a predator or disease-causing organism of the species being controlled.

Biofilms. A layer of microorganisms growing on a surface, in a bed of polymeric material which they themselves have made. Biofilms tend to form wherever a surface on which bacteria can grow is exposed to some suitable medium and a supply of bacteria.

Biofuel. A gaseous, liquid or solid fuel derived from a biological source, e.g. ethanol, rapeseed oil or fish liver oil.

Biofouling. Living organisms that attach to and start living on any object that is submerged in the sea. Commonly seen as barnacles attached to the hulls of ships or the bodies of whales.

Biogas. A mixture of methane and carbon dioxide resulting from the anaerobic decomposition of waste such as domestic, industrial and agricultural sewage.

Bioinformatics. The generation/creation, collection, storage (in databases), and efficient use of data/information from genomics from biological research to accomplish an objective (for example, to discover a new pharmaceutical or a new herbicide).

Bioleaching The recovery of metals from their ores, using the action of micro-organisms, rather than chemical or physical treatment. For example, Thiobacillus ferrooxidans has been used to extract gold from refractory ores.

Biological products / Biological / Biologics. Any virus, therapeutic serum, toxin, antitoxin, or analogous product used in the prevention, treatment or cure of diseases or injuries in humans.

Biomass. Any organic matter, particularly available on a renewable or recurring basis such as trees and plants (residues and fibers containing cellulose or lingo-cellulose), but also poultry litter and animal residues and waste, and industrial and municipal solid waste (for example, sawdust, wood chips, paper, grass and leaf compost).

Biomass concentration. The amount of biological material in a specific volume.

Biomimetic materials. Employed to describe synthetic analogues of natural materials with advantageous properties. For instance, some synthetic molecules act chemically like natural proteins, but are not as easily degraded by the digestive system. Other systems such as reverse micelles and/or liposome exhibit certain properties that mimic certain aspects of living systems.

Bioremediation. The use of plants and microorganisms to consume or otherwise help remove materials (such as toxic chemical wastes and metals) from contaminated sites (especially from soil and water). A natural process in which environmental problems are treated by the use of bacteria or other microorganisms that break down a problem substance, such as oil, into less harmful molecules.

Biopesticides. A product made from natural sources such as bacteria, animals or plants that is used for pest control. They tend to have less of an impact on the environment and human health because they are less toxic than conventional pesticides and usually affect only one specific pest instead of being broad-range. They can also work in low amounts, they break down quickly and when used properly, they can reduce the use of conventional pesticides while maintaining crop yields.

Biopiracy. The patenting of genetic stocks, and the subsequent privatization of genetic resources collections. The term implies a lack of consent on the part of the originator.

Bioprocess. Any process that uses complete living cells or their components (e.g. enzymes, chloroplasts) to effect desired physical or chemical changes.

Bioreactor. A tank in which cells, cell extracts or enzymes carry out a biological reaction. Often refers to a fermentation vessel for cells or microorganisms.

Biorecovery. The use of microorganisms for the recovery of valuable materials (metals or particular organic compounds) from complex mixtures. See: biodesulfurization, bioleaching.

Biomass. The total dry weight of all organisms in a particular sample, population, or area.

Biosafety.  Referring to the avoidance of risk to human health and safety, and to the conservation of the environment, as a result of the use for research and commerce of infectious or genetically modified organisms.

Biosafety protocol. An inteRNAtionally agreed protocol set up to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by the release of genetically modified organisms. It establishes a procedure for ensuring that countries are provided with the information necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms into their territory.Synonym: Cartagena protocol.

Biosensor. A device that uses an immobilized biologically-related agent (such as an enzyme, antibiotic, organelle or whole cell) to detect or measure a chemical compound. Reactions between the immobilized agent and the molecule being analysed are converted into an electric signal.

Biosilk. A biomimetic fibre produced by the expression of the relevant orb-weaving spider genes in yeast or bacteria, followed by the spinning of the expressed protein into a fibre.

Biosorbents. Micro-organisms which, either by themselves or in conjunction with a substrate are able to extract and/or concentrate a desired molecule by means of its selective retention. See: bio-accumulation.

Biosphere. The part of the earth and its atmosphere that is inhabited by living organisms.

Biotechnology. The scientific manipulation of living organisms, especially at the molecular genetic level, to produce useful products. Gene splicing and use of recombinant DNA (rDNA) are major techniques used.

Biotic stress. Living organisms which can harm plants , such as viruses, fungi, and bacteria, and harmful insects. See Abiotic stress.

Biotreatment. The treatment of a waste or hazardous substance using organisms such as bacteria, fungi and protozoa (see bioremediation).

Biotransformation. The conversion of one chemical or material into another using a biological catalyst: a near synonym is biocatalysis, and hence the catalyst used is called a biocatalyst. Usually the catalyst is an enzyme, or a fixed whole, dead micro-organism

Biosensing. Technology for the detection of a wide range of chemical and biological agents, including bacteria, viruses and toxins, in the environment and humans.

Biosynthesis. Synthesis of compounds by living cells, which is the essential feature of anabolism.

Bioremediation :Bioremediation is defined as the process whereby organic wastes are biologically degraded under controlled conditions to an innocuous state, or to levels below concentration limits established by regulatory authorities

Bioaugmentation :When microorganisms are imported to a contaminated site to enhance degradation we have a process known as bioaugmentation.

Biosparging. Biosparging involves the injection of air under pressure below the water table to increase groundwater oxygen concentrations and enhance the rate of biological degradation of contaminants by naturally occurring bacteria. Biosparging increases the mixing in the saturated zone and thereby increases the contact between soil and groundwater. The ease and low cost of installing small-diameter air injection points allows considerable flexibility in the design and construction of the system.

C

Capsule. A gelatinous structure that surrounds some bacteria.

Coccus. Spherical bacteria.

Compost. A rich soil-like material produced from decayed plants and other organic matter, such as food and animal waste, that decomposes (breaks down) naturally. Most food waste can be put into compost, but you should not include meat, bones, cheese, cooking oils and fish. These may take a long time to break down and attract unwanted pests.

Coenzyme. A small organic molecule that transfers small molecules from one enzyme to another.

Coliform. Gram negative rods resembling E.coli and similar species that normally inhabit the colon.

Coliform bacteria. A group of bacteria that are normally abundant in the intestinal tracts of humans and other warm-blooded animals and are used as indicators when testing the sanitary quality of water.

Colonization. Establishment of a site of reproduction of microbes on a material, animal, or person without necessarily resulting in tissue invasion or damage.

Colony. A group of bacteria in a culture derived from the multiplication of single cell ; usually visible to the unaided eye.

Conservation. The preservation or protection from decay or destruction of anything whose loss it is desirable to prevent.

Community. Any naturally occurìng group of organisms that occupy a common environment. The term is a general one, covering groups of various sizes. A grouping of interacting populations in a particular habitat.

Culture. A growth of microorganisms.

Culture medium. A preparation containing nutrients and growth factors suitable for the cultivation of microorganisms.

Cyanobacteria. Blue-green algae.

D

Dumping. Disposing of waste illegally by not using bins or official recycling centres, civic amenity sites or landfills.

Dry wastes. which can be collected by the containers for valuable materials such as glass, paper, cardboard, plastics, metals and similar recyclable wastes.

DISABILITY-ADJUSTED LIFE YEAR (DALY).

The sum of years of potential life lost due to premature mortality and the years of productive life lost due to disability.

 

E

E. coli (Escherichia coli). A bacterium found in the intestinal tracts of most vertebrates. It is used extensively in recombinant DNA research because it has been genetically well characterized.

Environment. It is an outer media in which human or another living being sustain own interactions during their life. The physical elements of this media are air, water and soil; the biological elements are producers (plants), utilizers (animals) and decomposers (bacteria and fungus); the economical environmental elements are the activities of human, which are related with utilization and operation of natural, human, economical and materialistic sources; the social elements are demographic structure, and historical and cultural infrastructure of human, and the type of life with respect to accomodation, health, education and culture demands. The physical , chemical and biotic conditions surrounding a living organism.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The federal agency of the US government, established in 1970, that is responsible for dealing with the pollution of air and water by solid waste, pesticides and radiation and with nuisances caused by noise.

Environmental quality standards. The maximum limits or concentrations of pollutants that are permitted in specific media.

Environmental protection. That part of resource management which is concerned with the discharge into the environment of substances that might be harmful, or that might have harmful physical effects and with safeguarding beneficial uses.

Escherichia coli. A commensal bacterium inhabiting the human colon that is widely used in biology, both as a simple model of cell biochemical function and as a host for molecular cloning experiments.

Eukaryote. An organism whose cells possess a nucleus and other membrane-bound vesicles, including all members of the protist, fungi, plant and animal kingdoms; and excluding viruses, bacteria, and blue-green algae. See Prokaryote.

F

Fecal coliform. Matter containing or derived from animal or human waste containing one or more of the coliform groups of bacteria.

Fecal streptococcus. Matter containing or derived from animal or human waste containing one or more of the streptococcus groups of bacteria.

Fermentation. The breakdown of organic substances by organisms with the release of energy; especially the anaerobic breakdown of carbohydrates by yeasts and bacteria to form carbon dioxide and ethanol or other organic compounds.

Fertilizer. Any substance that is applied to land as a source of nutrients for plant growth.It may be a waste that is being recycled (e.g., farmyard manure, crop residues or compost) or produced industrially.

Fungicide. An agent, such as a chemical, that kills fungi.

Fungus. A microorganism that lacks chlorophyll.

Food biotechnology. The application of biotechnology to the production of food.

G

General waste. No special treatment is necessary for this waste which can be disposed of with municipal waste. Food waste from tuberculosis or similar category treatment areas should be autoclaved before disposal.

GMAC (Genetic Manipulation Advisory Committee). A government expert advisory committee that provided guidance to the government and industry on the safe and responsible development and use of gene technology in Australia before the commencement of the Gene Technology Act 2000 in June 2001.

Genetic modification (GM). Any process that alters the genetic material of living organism. This includes duplicating, deleting or inserting one or more new genes or altering the activities of an existing gene. It can be performed on microbes, plants or animals (humans included). Where this is done in humans, it is gene therapy, and only human genes are used.*

Genetically modified organism (GMO). An organism (plant, animal, bacteria, or virus) that has had its genetic material altered, either by the duplication, insertion or deletion of one or more new genes, or by changing the activities of an existing gene.*

Global warming. The gradual increase in temperature of the Earth’s surface caused by human activities that cause high levels of carbon dioxide and other gases to be released into the air.

H

Herbicide. A substance that kills plants. Used in agriculture, horticulture and gardening. Can be selective (kill selected species) or non-selective (broad spectrum - kill all plants).

Household waste. Waste that contains paper, cardboard, textiles (for example fabric or carpet), timber, food, garden clippings, glass, plastic and other manufactured materials.

Hazardous waste. Waste that poses a risk to human health or the environment and needs to be handled and disposed of carefully. Examples include oil-based paints, car batteries, weed killers, bleach and waste electrical and electronic devices.

I

Impact. It is a change which is caused by an activity which affects the natural, economical and social elements of the environment, directly or indirectly, for a long or short period, permanently or temporarily, positively or negatively.

Incineration. Burning of garbage in special facilities utilizing inherent thermal values of solid wastes.

Incinerator. A device in which solid, semi-solid, liquid or gaseous combustible material is burnt as a means of disposal. If the material does not support combustion auxiliary fuel is added. Many types of industrial and domestic wastes are incinerated and there are many types of incinerator to deal with different wastes.

Insecticide. A chemical that kills insects.

Intellectual property (IP). The content of the human intellect, or the result of intellectual effort, which is considered to be unique and original and have value in the marketplace, and therefore requires legal protection and ownership. This includes copyrighted material such as literary or artistic works, industrial processes, and trademarks and patents.

J

Joint Forest Management (JFM). A variant of community forestry widely adopted in India for managing government-owned forest in which responsibility and benefits are shared between local user groups and government forestry departments.

L

Landfill. The disposal of refuse by tipping it on land. Often the refuse is used to fill in old mine workings or low-lying land, to reclaim land from water or to create a feature on flat land. If the refuse is deposited in prepared trenches or holes, over which earth can be heaped at the and of each day, this is called controlled tipping in the UK and Sanitary Landfill in the USA.

Land use. The deployment of land for any use. Competition for limited areas of land requires the establishment of priorities among claims, which is the object of land use planning.

Latent. Currently inactive but capable of becoming active.

Leachate. Water that has percolated through soil, or a filter material, containing soluble substance and that, therefore, contain amounts of these substances in solution.

Leaching . The removal of the soluble constituents of a rock, soil or ore (that which is leached being known as the leachate) by the action of percolating waters. Leaching is a major process in the development of porosity in limestones in the secondary enrichment of ores and in the formation of soils.

Litter. Waste that is thrown away carelessly, mainly made up of plastic, metal, glass, paper or food. Common examples are chewing gum and cigarette butts.

M

MBT. Short for ‘mechanical biological treatment’, which is a way of sorting and treating waste. The waste is first sorted mechanically into materials that can and cannot be recycled. Any waste that can be recycled is then broken down biologically, often through composting, while the rest is usually sent to landfill. See also composting.

Micronutrient. (Gr. mikros, small + L. nutrire, to nourish) For growth media: An essential element normally required in concentrations < 0.5 millimole/litre.

Microorganism. Organism visible only under magnification.

Municipal waste. Substances discarded as unusable by private households, offices, shops, etc., but not the waste products of industrial processing or manufacturing. Municipal waste is composed typically of paper, organic matter, plastics, metals and non-metallic minerals (e.g., ash). Historically, the content of plastics has increased rapidly, and the ash content has decreased. Such waste is generally collected for disposal by incineration, LANDFILL, COMPOSTING or DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION, and in some areas it is used as fuel to generate

Mycorrhizae. Fungi that form symbiotic relationships with roots of more developed plants.

N

National Institutions of Health (NIH). A non regulatory agency which has oversight of research activities that the agency funds.

Nanotechnology. From the Latin nanus = "dwarf", so it literally means "dwarf technology". The word was originally coined by Norio Taniguchi in 1974, to refer to high precision machining. However, Richard Feynman and K. Eric Drexler later popularized the concept of nanotechnology as a new and developing technology in which humans manipulate objects whose dimensions are approximately 1 to 100 nanometers. Theoretically, it is possible that in the future a variety of human-made "nano-assemblers" (that is, tiny [molecular] machines smaller than a grain of sand) could manufacture those things that are produced in factories today. For example, enzyme molecules function essentially as jigs and machine tools to shape large molecules as they are formed in biochemical reactions. The technology also encompasses biochips, biosensors and manipulating atoms and molecules in order to form (build) bigger, but still microscopic functional structures and machines.

O

Oil spill. The harmful release of oil into the environment, usually through water, which is very difficult to clean up and often kills birds, fish and other wildlife.

Organic farming. Farming without the use of industrially made fertilizers and pesticides, according the principles laid down by Sir Albert Howard, Lady Eve Balfour and others, and as modernized and interpreted in Britain by the Soil Association.

Organic matter. Amount of remainder after drying and incineration of a sample into an oven at 6250 C for 3 hours, which is taken from solid wastes or composts.

P

Patent. A grant made by a government that allows the creator of an invention the sole right to make, use, and sell that invention for a set period of time.

Pathogenicity. The ability to cause disease.

Pathogen. (Gr. pathos, suffering + genesis, beginning) An organism that causes a disease in another organism.

Pathogen-free. Freedom from disease-causing organisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses, etc.).

Phytoremediation is the use of living green plants for in situ risk reduction and/or removal of contaminants from contaminated soil, water, sediments, and air. Specially selected or engineered plants are used in the process.

Risk reduction can be through a process of removal, degradation of, or containment of a contaminant or a combination of any of these factors.

Parasite. An organism that lives in or on a host organism and uses it as a source of food and shelter, to the detriment of the host.

Particulate matter. Fine solid or liquid particles that pollute the air and are added to the atmosphere by natural and man-made processes at the Earth’s surface. Examples of particulate matter include dust, smoke, soot, pollen and soil particles.

Pesticides. A general term for any chemicals that are used to kill weeds, fungi, insects or other pests.

Post-consumer waste. Waste collected after a consumer has disposed of it, for example sweet wrappers or packaging from small electronic goods such as mobile phones or MP3 players.

R

Recycling. Procedure which is carried out without any chemical and biological treatment for some reusable materials such as paper, plastic, glass and can. These materials can be returned into economical processes

Renewable resource. A resource that can be exploited without depletion because it is constantly replenished. The includes agricultural crops and fish, provided stocks are not overfished, and is extended to cover the energy of solar radiation, wind, waves and tides.

Renewable energy. Energy from renewable resources such as wind power, solar energy or biomass.

Reuse. To use an item more than once for the same purpose, which helps save money, time, energy and resources

Rhizosphere. The part of the soil immediately surrounding roots. Roots alter the nutrient status of the soil close to them by absorbing minerals and releasing other substances. This leads to an increase in the numbers of microorganisms and often alters the relative proportions of the different kinds of microorganisms present.

Run-off. Water from rain or snow that runs off the surface of the land and into streams and rivers.

S

Smog. Air pollution consisting of smoke and fog, which occurs in large urban and industrial areas and is mainly caused by the action of sunlight on burned fuels, mostly from car exhausts. Smog can cause eye irritations and breathing problems and damage plant life.

T

Toxic. Poisonous or harmful to the body (exotoxic relates to damage to the environment).

Toxin. A poisonous substance that can either be natural (produced by plants, animals or bacteria) or manufactured.

Tissue culture. The separation of cells from each other and their growth in a container of liquid nutrients.

Transgenic. The insertion or splicing of specific genetic sequences from one species into the functioning genome of an unrelated species to transfer desired properties for human purposes. This may be viewed as a more precise form of hybridization or plant/animal breeding, with the added consideration that genetic material from species significantly different from one another is involved (for example, the insertion of genetic material from an animal into a plant or vice versa). Another possibility is the transfer of genetically controlled properties between different animal species, such as the breeding of goats whose milk yields spider silk for possible development of new structural materials.

U

Ultraviolet light; ultraviolet radiation (UV). The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths from about 100 to 400 nm; between ionizing radiation (X-rays) and visible light. UV is absorbed by DNA and is highly mutagenic to unicellular organisms and to the epidermal cells of multicellular organisms. UV light is used in tissue culture for its mutagenic and bactericidal properties.

V

Viable. Capable of germinating, living, growing and developing.

Vibrio. Comma-shaped bacterium.

W

Wash-out. The loss of the slower growing microorganism when two organisms are being grown together.

Waste management. The management of waste collection, handling, processing, storage and transport from where it is produced to where it is finally disposed. See waste prevention.

Waste prevention. An aspect of waste management that involves reducing the amount of waste we produce and minimising the potential harm to human health or the environment from packaging or ingredients in products.

Weed. Simply any plant growing where it is not wanted. In agriculture, used for a plant which has good colonizing capability in a disturbed environment, and can usually compete with a cultivated species therein. Weeds are typically considered as unwanted, economically useless or pest species.

Y

Yeast extract. A mixture of substances from yeast. oforganic complex; undefined.

Yeast. A unicellular ascomycete fungus, commonly found as a contaminant in plant tissue culture.

Yeast cloning vectors. The yeasts, and especially Saccaromyces cerevisiae, are favourite organisms in which to clone and express DNA. They are eukaryotes, and so can splice out introns, the non-coding sequences in the middle of many eukaryotic genes.

Z

Zoospore. A spore that possesses flagella and is therefore motile.

Zygospore. (Gr. zygon, a yoke + spore) A thick-walled resistant spore developing from a zygote resulting from the fusion of isogametes.

Zygote. (Gr. zygon, a yoke) A diploid cell formed by the fusion of two haploid gametes during fertilization in eukaryotic organisms with sexual reproduction. It is the first cell of the new individual.

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