Explanation:

Cognitive science was born in 1956 (Miller, 2003). Because it is about a century younger than experimental psychology, it would not be surprising to discover that cognitive science is also pre-paradigmatic. This might explain the variety of opinions about the nature of cognition, introduced earlier as the competing elements of classical, connectionist, and embodied cognitive science. “The pre-paradigm period, in particular, is regularly marked by frequent and deep debates over legitimate methods, problems, and standards of solution, though these serve rather to define schools than produce agreement” .

The current state of cognitive science defines an as yet incomplete dialectic. Competition amongst classical, connectionist, and embodied cognitive science reflects existing tensions between thesis and antithesis. What is missing is a state of synthesis in which cognitive science integrates key ideas from its competing schools of thought. This integration is necessary, because it is unlikely that, for instance, a classical characterization of the pure cognitive system will provide a complete explanation of cognition (Miller, Galanter, & Pribram, 1960; Neisser, 1976; Norman, 1980).