Context

Despite significant improvements in female literacy—especially in urban areas—India continues to witness a persistently low Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR). The PLFS 2023–24 reveals a stark rural–urban divide and a widening disconnect between education and employment for women, raising concerns over inclusive and sustainable economic growth.

Key Trends (PLFS 2023–24 & World Bank 2024

• Urban Female Literacy: 84.9%
  Urban FLFPR: Only 28%
• Rural Literacy–FLFPR Gap: ~22%
  Urban Literacy–FLFPR Gap: ~57%
• National Female Literacy Rate: 74.6%
  Employment Gap: ~33 percentage points
• Global Context: India falls between developed nations (40-point gender employment gap) and developing ones (25-point gap)

Why is India’s FLFPR Low?

Structural and Societal Barriers in Urban Areas

1. Inflexible Urban Employment:
   Service sector jobs often lack flexibility for family responsibilities, discouraging sustained female participation.
2. Mobility and Safety Issues:
   Concerns about personal safety and lack of safe, reliable transport restrict access to formal workspaces.
3. Informality and Job Insecurity:
   Many urban women are employed in low-paid informal jobs without social protection, leading to job exit during life transitions.
4. Childcare Deficit:
   With 61.3% urban households being nuclear (NFHS-5), lack of affordable childcare forces women to stay home.
5. Post-Maternity Dropout:
   Limited re-entry pathways and lack of part-time jobs result in permanent exit from the workforce after childbirth—often called the “care penalty.”

Why is Rural FLFPR Higher?

1. Flexible, Home-Based Work:
   Agriculture and self-employment allow work near home, accommodating caregiving responsibilities.
2. Informal Community Support:
   Extended families in rural areas provide informal childcare, enabling women to continue working.
3. Economic Necessity:
   Participation often stems from need, not empowerment—reflecting survival, not choice.
4. Cultural Normalisation:
   Women’s work (often unpaid or underpaid) is socially accepted and expected within rural economies.
5. Crisis-Driven Inclusion:
   Post-COVID return migration and job losses in cities led to a temporary rise in rural FLFPR, not supported by systemic change.

The Paradox of Declining FLFPR

• 2005–2019 Decline:
  Despite rising education levels and falling fertility rates, FLFPR declined—a paradox explained by rising household incomes reinforcing traditional gender roles.
• Post-COVID Spike (Rural Only):
  Temporary increase driven by distress employment, not structural empowerment. Urban FLFPR remains largely stagnant.

Economic and Social Implications

• Lost Demographic Dividend:
  Non-participation of half the workforce undermines long-term growth potential.
• Stagnated Social Development:
  Female employment is linked to better health, nutrition, and educational outcomes for families.
• Reinforced Gender Norms:
  Higher incomes among urban middle classes have paradoxically strengthened the “man-as-provider” stereotype.
• Competitiveness Concerns:
  India lags behind countries like Bangladesh and Vietnam in inclusive workforce participation.
• Justice and Equity Deficit:
  Low FLFPR perpetuates economic inequality and reinforces patriarchal structures.

Way Forward

1. Invest in Public Childcare:
   Expand anganwadi coverage and build urban crèches to support working mothers.
2. Promote Flexible Work Models:
   Encourage part-time roles, hybrid models, and gig economy opportunities tailored to women’s time constraints.
3. Strengthen Legal Frameworks:
   Ensure effective implementation of the POSH Act, equal pay regulations, and maternity benefits.
4. Norms Transformation Campaigns:
   Launch targeted awareness campaigns to promote shared caregiving roles and normalize women’s employment.
5. Inclusive Urban Infrastructure:
   Build safe public transport, women-friendly toilets, and crèche-linked workplaces to make cities work-friendly for women.

Conclusion

India’s low Female Labour Force Participation is not just a statistical anomaly—it reflects a deeper social contract that restricts women’s economic roles. As the country aims for a $5 trillion economy, women’s participation must be seen not just as a social ideal but as an economic necessity. Addressing this paradox requires both structural reform and social transformation—neither rural resilience nor urban development alone will suffice.

Source: EPW