Rise and Growth of Magadha empire

Causes for the Rise of Magadha

• Advantageous geographical location either at Rajgir or Pataliputra situated at strategic locations.
• Advantageous natural resources such as iron enable Magadhan rulers to equip with effective weapons.
• The alluvial soil of Gangetic plains and sufficient rainfall was very conducive for agriculture produces.
• Rise of town and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce.
• The princes could use tools and accumulate wealth to pay and maintain their army.
• Use of elephants on a large scale in wars.
• Liberal (Unorthodox) character of Magadhan society.
• Contribution of several enterprising and ambitious rulers.
• Magadha came into prominence under leadership of Bimbisara who belonged to ‘Srenika’ a ‘Haryanka’ Dynasty. He was contemporary of Buddha.
• His first wife was Kosala Devi, daughter of King of Kosala and sister of Prasenjit. His second wife was Chellana, daughter of Licchavi chief Chetak and his third wife was daughter of chief of Madra clan of Punjab.
• Magadha’s most serious rival was Avanti, its king Chanda Pradyota. Mahasena fought Bimbisar but later on became friends once Bimbisar sent royal physician ‘Jeevak’ to Ujjain when Pradyota was attacked by Jaundice.
• The earliest capital of Magadha was at Rajgir also called Grivraja.

Ajatsatru (492-460)

• Through out his reign he pursued an aggressive policy of expansion. He enlarged his empire with the addition of Kashi and Vaishali.
• He possessed a war engine which was to thorw stones like catapults. He also had a chariot to which mace was attached and it facilitated mass killing.
• To meet the danger of Avanti, he fortified Rajgir.

Udayin (460-444 B.C.)

• His reign is important because he built the fort upon the confluence of Ganga and son at Patna.
• Thus, he shifted his capital of Patliputra.

Shisu nagas

• Udayin was succeeded by Shisunaga who temporarily shifted his capital to Vaishali.
• he was the Viceroy of Benaras and was invited by people to take over the thron.
• Their greatest actievement was destruction of power of Avanti.
• Kalasoka was the successor of Sisu Nagas. The second Buddhist council was held during his reign.

Nandas

• Its greatest king was Mahapdmananda who claimed to be ‘Ekarat’ or the sole sovereign who destroyed all other ruling powers.
• Nandas were first non-Kshatriya ruling dynasties. Mahapadmananda himself if described in Puranic texts as destroyer of all Kshatriyas.
• The first imperial and centralized structure was established by Nandas.
• The Nandas possessed a huge army which would only be maintained by effective taxation – (Recorded by Greek writer – Arrian)
• Bhadrasala or Dhananad was the last Nanda king who was defeated by Chandra Gupta Maurya.

• The Iranian ruler Dairus penetrated India in 516 B.C.. and annexed Punjab and made it 20th province or a satrapy.
• XERXES was the successor of Darius who employed Indians in war against Greeks.
• The Indo-Iranian contrcts gave on impetus to Indo-Iranian trade and commerce.
• The Iranian scribes brought into India a form of writing, which were to be known as ‘Kharosti Script’ it was written from right to left.
• The monumentof Asoka period especially the bell shaped capitals, owed something to Iranian model.

Alexander invasion

• Alexander was tempted by popular wealth of India as described by Herodotus (father of History) and other Greek writer. he possessed a strong passion for geographical inquiry and natural History. More over political conditions of India suited his plans.
• Alexnander invaded India in 326 B.C. thorugh the khybar pass. he entered India after stuggling with some tribal people callect Asvakas.
• Ambhi was ruling Taxila and Porus between Jhelum and Ravi.
• The battle between Porus and Alexander took at river Jhelum in which prous was defeated. He crossed Ravi but despite his best efforts he could not compel his soldiers to cross Beas.
• He founded the city of Alenanderia in Kabul region, Boukephala on Jhelum and Alenandria in Sindh.
• The last city he conquered was Patala. He died in 323 B.C. in Babylon.

Impact of Alexander's Invasion

• Alexander’s campaign opened up and reinforces a number of trade routes between north-western India, via Afghanistan and Iran to Asia Minor and to the ports along the eastern Mediterranean.
• The date of Alexander’s campaign noted clearly in the chronicles left by the historians has helped establish the chronological order of subsequent events in India. It also opened a new door for Greek art and architecture.
• Thus, Alexander paved the way for the rise of a united empire under the Mauryas.

Chandragupta maurya

• Puranas described Mauryas as mainly Sudras and unrighteous
• Mudraraksha of Visakadatta says that the name Maurya was derived from Mura, a Nanda queen, mother or grand-mother of Chandra Gupta Maurya.
• Buddhist text connects them with the tribe of Sakyaas that the region was full of peocock i.e. ‘Moriyas’ and attributed them to Kshatriya clan.
• Chandragupta ascended the throne in 322 B.C.
• Chandragupta fought Selucus in 305 B.C. Selucus surrendered a vast territory including Parapani Sadai (Kabul), Arachosia (Afghanistan), Gedrosia (Baluchistan), Arria (Heart), in return for 500 elephants
• Chandragupta was converted to Jainism abdicated in favour of Simhasena i.e. Bindusar, went with Bhadra Bahu to Sravan Belgola where he died of slow starvation.
• Megasthenese was a Greek ambassador sent by Selecus to court of Chandragupta Maurya.
• The account of Megasthenese ‘INDICA’ does not survived in full but quotations occur in works of several subsequent Greek writers like Strabo, Diodirus, Arrian, pliny.
• ‘Arthasastra’ of Kautilya was finally compiled a few centuries after the Maurya rule, but some of books contain material that is genuine and gives authentic information of about Mauryan administration and economy.

Bindusar

• ‘Simhasena’ of Jain Tradition, ‘Amitro chates’ of Strabo which was Greek version of Sanskrit ‘Amitraghata’ or Slayer of foes.
• Antichus-I of Syria sent Deimachus to his court. Bindusar asked Antichus-I for some sweet wine, dried figs, and sophist. Anticous sent figs and wine but replied politely Greek philosophers are not for sale.
• Bindusar aided Ajivika sect.

Asoka (272 B.C. – 232 B.C.)

• According to ‘Ashokavadana’, Asoka was sent to Taxila to quell a revolt against official oppression.
• He was awarded the viceroyalty of Ujjain.
• According to Buddhist tradition, Ashoka upsuped the throne after killing his 99 brothers and spared Tissa, the youngest one Radhagupta a Minister of Bindusar helped him in fatricidal struggle.
• Asoka fought the Kalinga war in 261 B.C.in the 9th year of his coronation. The king was moved by massacre in this war and therefore abandoned the policy of physical occupation in favour of policy of cultural conquest. In other words Bherighosha was replaced byDhammaghosha.
• The subjects of Kalinga were asked to obey the king as their father (Dhauli/Tosali, Jaguda/Sampa Rock Edict)
• Asoka was not an extreme pacifist. he did not pursue the policy of peace for sake of peace under all conditions. Thus he retained Kalinga after its conquest and incorporated it into his empire.
• He appointed a class of officers known as Rajuka who were vested with the authority of not only rewarding people but also punishing them.
• He visited Lumbini in 21st year of his reign and made a stone bearing wall and caused a stone pillar to set up in order to show that blessed one was born here.
• Rummendei pillar refers to Mauryan Taxation. The village of Lumbini was exempted from Bali (Tribute) and the royal Share of produce i.e., Bhaga was reduced to 1/8th.
• He stared the institution of Dharmamahamattras in 14th year of his reign.
• The institution of Rajukas was started in 27th year of his reign.
• In the 13th year he donated Lomarishi caves in Barabar hills to Ajivikas.
• Ashoka visited to Gaya in 10th year of his reign i.e. (started Dhamma yatras) – 8th Major Rock Edict refere to piligrimage of Asoka.
• Asoka set a very high ideal for himself and this was ideal of paternal kingship (Dhauli and Jaguda) R.E.
• Asoka appointed Dharmamahamatras for propagating Dharma among various social groups including women.

Asoka dhamma

• Asoka’s Dhamma cannot be regarded as sectarian faith. Its broad objective was to preserve the social order it ordained that people should obey their parents, pay respect to Brahmanas and Buddhist
• monks and show mercy to slave and servants.
• He held that if people behaved well they would attain heaven or ‘Swarga’. He never said that they would attain ‘NIRVANA’ which was goal of Buddhist Teaching.
• Asoka’s Teaching were thus intended to maintain the existing social order on the basis of ‘Tolerance’.

Asoka edicts

• He was the first Indian king to talk directly to the people through his inscriptions.
• These inscriptions communicate royal orders. They have been found at more than 45 places and their total version number 181.
• These epigraphs were first deciphered in 1837 by James Princep.
• Composed in prakrit they were written in Brahmi script throughout the greater part of the empire.
• In North western part – Kharosthi and Aramaic script.
• In Afghaistan – Both Aramaic and Greek script and language.
• The Asokan insciptions are generally placed on the highway.

Edicts

• 1st Rock Edicts - Prohibition of animal sacrifice
• 2nd Rock Edicts  - Medical mission sent to land of Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas, Ceylon, etc.
• 3rd Rock Edicts - Yukta, Rajjuka and Pradesika appointed in the 13th Regnal year.
• 4th Rock Edicts- The sound of Bherighosta has become the sound of Dhamma Ghosa.
• 5th Rock Edicts- Duties of Dhammamahamatta laid down.
• 6th Rock Edicts - Taks of Accessibility of king.
• 7th Rock Edicts- Tolerance and compassion.
• 13th R.E.- Kalinga war mentions Cholas, Cheras, Satyputras, Pandyas and Tamrapani as it   neighbours.
• The contemporaries of Asoka are Antichus II of Syria, Prolemy II of Egypt, Antigous of Macedonia, Magas of Cyrene, Alexander of Epirus.
• In Bhabru edict, Asoka states his acceptanceof Buddhist creed, the faith in Budha and Sangha. He refers to himself as ‘King of Magadha’
• In Maski edict – The Name ‘Asoka’ appear.

The imperial organization

• The empire was dividedinto number of province and each province was placed under Kumara (Prince) or Aryaputra.
• The provinces were divided into smaller units and arrangements were made for both rural and urban administration.
• Patliputra, Kaushambhi, Ujjain and Taxila were most important cities in Mauryan times.
• According to Megasthenes the administration of Patliputra was carred by 6 committees, each committee consisiting of 5 members. These committees were entrusted with
• (1)  Sanitation and industrial ores.
• (2)  Supervision of foreigners.
• (3)  Registration of birth and measure.
• (4)  Supervision of sales.
• (5)  Collection of taxes 1/10 of the price.

Army

• The most striking feature of Mauryan administration was maintanence of huge army. The Mauryan also maintained Navy.
• According to Megasthenes the administration of Army was carried by board of 30 officiers divided into six committees, each committee consisting of 5 members.
• The six wing of army were assigned to takecare of separate committees. They are: (1) Army (2) Cavalry (3) Elephants (4) Chariots (5) Navy (6) Transport.
• The state controlled almost all economic activities.
• The state brought new land under cultivation with the help of cultivators and shudras.
• Tax collected from peasant varied form ¼ to 1/6 of the produce.
• The state also provided irrigation facilities and charged water tax.
• Tolls were also levied on commodities brought to town for sale and they were collected at gate.
• The state enjoyed monopoly in mining, sale of liquor, manufacture of arms etc.

Administration

• Important functionaries were called ‘Trithas’ and were paid in cash.
• The high functionaries were minister (Mantri), high priest of palace (Purohita), commander in chief (Senapati) and crown prince (Yuvraja).
• According to Artha Sastra, the state appointed 27 Superintendents (Adhyakshas), mostly to regulate economic activity.

Taxes

Art & architecture

• The Mauryas introduced stone masonry on large scale. Megasthenese states that the Maurya palace at Patliputre was as splendid as that in capital at Iran.
• Fragments of stone pillars and stumps indicating the existence of 80 pillared hall have been discovered at Kumarhar on outskirts of Patna.
• The pillars represents the Masterpiece of Mauryan sculpture. Each pillar is made of single piece of sandstone, only their capitals which are beautiful pieces of sculpure in form of lion or bulls are joined with pillar on the top.
• Single Lion capital at Rampurva and Lavriya Nandangarh.
• Single bull capital at Rampurva.
• Four lion capital at Sarnath and Sanchi.
• A carved elephant at Dhauli and engraved elephant at Kalsi.
• The popular art of Mauryan period is represented by Yakshi in Besanagar, the Yaksha of Park kham and Chaux-Bearer of Didarganj.
• The Mauryan artisans also started the practice of hewing out caves from rocks for monks to live in. The earliest example are Barabar caves in Gaya.

Decline

• The Mauryan empire was finally destroyed by Pushyamitra Sunga in 185 B.C. He was the general of last Mauryan King Brihadratha.
• Other causes included Brahmanical reaction, Financial crisis, Oppressive rule, New knowledge in outlying area (Dissemination of Knowledge of Manufacturing Iron.), Neglect of north-west frontier.

• The period which started in about 200 B.C. did not have any large empire like that of the Mauryas.
• In eastern India, central India and the Deccan, the Mauryas were succeeded by a number of native rulers such as the Sungas, the Kanvas and the Satavahanas.
• In north-western India they were succeded by a number of ruling dynasties from Central Asia.

Shunga or Sunga Dynasty

• Four rulers of Shunga or Sunga Dynasty were PushyamitraSunga (185 BC TO 151 BC), Agnimitra (149 BC -141 BC), Bhagabhadra (114 BC -83 BC) and Devabhuti (87-73 BC)
• Pushyamitra Shunga founded the Shunga dynasty in around 185-183 BC.
•  Capital of Shunga Dynasty Was Pataliputra and its major centers were Ujjain, Mathura, Saket, Sanchi, and Kapilvastu.
• Vidisha was capital of later Shunga rulers.
• The empire included modern West Bengal and parts of Bangladesh, some parts of northern Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh .
• In South India, the contemporary of Mauryas & Shungas were Saatvahanas, Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas.
• The extent of Saatvahana was modern Andhra Pradesh, Pandyas was Tamil Nadu and Karnataka and Cheras was Kerala (Cheras derived from Keralaputra). 

 Pushyamitra Sunga (185 BC TO 151 BC):

• Pushyamitra Shunga the founder and hero of the Shunga dynasty.
• He was viceroy of the Mauryas at Ujjain and was a real war hero.
• He was not happy with his king Brihadratha, who failed in containing the Yavanas and attacks from the western sides.
•  Pushyamitra Shunga was also credited to repulse the two attacks of Greeks and also conquest over Vidarbha.
• The first of these attacks from Greeks, which were repulsed by Pushyamitra Shunga, was under Demetrius and another was under Meander.
• Pushyamitra is also known to have repelled the Kalinga’s king Kharvela conquest.
• He is also known to have performed an Ashvamedha Yagna.
• The Ayodhya Inscription of Dhandeva mentions that he performed two Ashwamedha Yagyas (Horse Sacrifices).
• As per the Puranas, Pushyamitra Shunga reigned for 36 years.
• Some evidences say that Pushyamitra Shunga destroyed many stupas of Asoka.
• But there are also evidences that Barhut Stupa was built during the Shunga Empire only.
• Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra.

Agnimitra : (149 BC -141 BC) :

• Agnimitra the second king of Shunga dynasty, succeeded his father Pushyamitra Shunga and reigned for a short period of 8 years.
• He is the hero of Malvikagnimitram of Kalidasa in which he has been referred to as Raja.
• By the times of Agnimitra, Vidarbha had become independent of the Maurays.
• Agnimitra was succeeded by Vasumitra around 131 BC.
• Who succeeded Vasumitra , not much details are available.
• Different accounts mention the name of different kings such as Andhraka, Pulindaka, Ghosha or Vajramitra.
• The last rulers of Shunga dynasty were Bhagabhadra and Devabhuti, about whom we have some details

Bhagabhadra (114 BC -83 BC):

• We know about the king Bhagabhadra by a Heliodorus pillar, which has been found in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh near modern Besnagar.
• Heliodorus was a Greek ambassador and he dedicated this pillar to God Vasudeva (Vishnu).
• The Heliodorus pillar has a surmounted figure of a Garuda.

Devabhuti (87-73 BC):

• Devabhuti was the last Shunga Ruler who was killed by his own minister Vasudeva Kanva in around 73 BC.
• Vasudeva Kanva thus assassinated the last ruler of Shunga Dynasty and founded the Kanva Dynasty.

Hunas

• Hunas were one of the fierce tribes from Central Asia. They have been periodically invading India since the Sunga period. They were resisted by the rulers uptil the second half of the 5th century A.D. But the weakness of Gupta empire provided them with a chance and by A.D. 485 they were able to occupy eastern Malwa and a good portion of central India.

Kanva Dynasty (72 B.C. – 27 B.C.)

• The rule of the Kanvas lasted for about 45 years. Four kings ruled during this period. Vasudeva ruled for a period of nine years and Bhumimitra for 14 years.
• Narayana held the reigns of administration for almost 12 years— Shusarma was the last of the Kanvas. During the Kanva dynasty, the Brahmanical reaction persisted.

Cheta (Chetis) Dynasty of Kalinga

• The history of Kalinga is not known with any degree of certainty till the first century B.C. The veil of obscurity is lifted by the far famed but damaged Hatigumpha (in the Udaygiri hill near Bhubaneswar) inscription.
• It records the exploits of Kharavela belonging to the Cheta or Cheti line of kings, founded by Maha Meghavahana.
• According to the testimony of the inscription of Kharavela, aged 24, ascended the throne of Kalinga probably in 25 B.C.
• After having served apprenticeship as Yuvaraja for eight years. The inscription which accounts for the 13 years of Kharavela’s rule, describes in detail the digvijaya of the Kalinga prince.

The Indo-Greeks

• The first to cross Hindukush and Invade India were Greeks or Indo Greeks or Bactrian Greeks who ruled Bactria, lying south of Oxus River area covered by north Afghanistan in 206 B.C.
• The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165-145 B.C.) or Milinda. He had his capital at Sakala (Sialkot). he was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena.
• The question asked by Menander relating to Buddhism and the answers given by Nagasena were recorded in form of books known as Milinda-Panha or Questions of Milinda.
• The Indo-Greeks were first ruler in India to issue coins which can be definitely attributed to kings.
• The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India which increased in number under Kushanas.
• The Greek rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in N.W. Frontier of India giving rise to Ghandhara Art.

The Shakas

• The Greeks were followed by Shakas who controlled a much larger part of India than the Greeks.
• The first Shaka king was maves or Moga.
• The were five branchesof Sakas
• 1.   In Afghanistan.
• 2.   In Punjab with Taxila as its capital.
• 3.   In Mathura they ruled for 200 years.
• 4.   In western India where they ruled till 400 A.D.
• 5.   In upper Deccan.
• In about 58 B.C. a king of Ujjain fought and defeated Shakas and called himself Vikramadity and started an era Vikram Samvat (57 B.C.)
• The most famous Shaka ruler in India was Rudra Daman I (A.D. 130-150). He ruled over Sindh, Gujarat, Malwa, Kathiawar, Konkan and Narmada valley.
• He repaired the Sudrasan lake in Girnar. This lake has been in use for irrigation for long time and was as old as the time  of Mauryas.
• Rudradaman issued the first ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit in Kavya style.

The parthians

• The Shaka domination in north westIndia was followed by the Parthians. Orignally the Parthians lived in Iran.
• The most famous of Parthian king was Gondopheres in whose reign St. Thomas is said to have come to India for propagation of Christianity.

The kushanas

• Their empire extended from Oxus to Ganga, from Khorasan in central Asian to Varanasi in U.P.
• There were two successive dynasties of Kushanas. The first dynasty was founded by House of Chiefs who were called Kadphises as it had two kings. The first was Kujala Khadphises who issued  coins south of Hindukush.
• The second was Vima Khadphises who issued a large number of gold coins and spread his kingdom east of Indus.
• Vima Khadphises was coverted to Saivism and proclaimed himself as Mahisvara.
• Vima was succeeded by Kaniska who adopted the title to ‘Devaputra’
• Purushpura or Peshawar was the first capital of Kushanas while Mathura was the second.
• At Puruspura Kaniska created a monastry and a huge stupa.
• He started an era in A.d. 78 which is known as Saka era.
• A fourth Buddhist council was held at Kunda Van in Kashmir during the reign of Kaniska., where the doctrines of Mahayana form of Buddhism was finalized.
• The successor of Kaniska containued to rule in N.W. India till 230 A.d. and some of them bore Typical Indian names as Vasudeva.
• The Kushan empire in Afghanistan and area west of Indus was supplanted in mid  3rd century A.d. by Sassnian power which rose in Iran.
• The Kushana kings issued numerous gold coins with higher degree of metallic purity than and found in Gupta gold coins.
• The Kushanas controlled the famous sike route which was a great source of income to them.
• At a place ccalled Topra-Kala in Khorezm a huge Kushana palace of 3red 4th century have been found which possesses administrative archives written in Aramaic script and Khorezmian language.

• The most important of native successors of Mauryas in north were Sungas followed by Kanvas.
• In Deccan and in central India the Satavahanas are considered to be identical with the Andharas who are mentioned in Puranas but the Puranas speak of Andhra rule and not the Satavahana. On the other hand the name Andhra does not appear in Satavahana inscription.
• However according to Puranas the Andharas ruled for 300 years.
• The founder of this dynasty is Simuka who destroyed the Sunga power.
• The greatest competitors of Satavahanas were the SHAKA’s who had established their power in upper Deccan and Western India.
• The greatest of the Stavahana king was Gautamiputra Satakarni A.D. (166-130). He took pride in calling himself the destroyer of Sakas, Greeks and Parthians.
• He destroyed the Kshaharata lineage to which his adversary Nahapana belonged.
• he was succeeded by Vashishthiputra Pulmayi (A.D. 130-154). He set up his capital at Paithan or Pratishthan on Godavri inn Aurangabad district.
• Rudradaman I, Shaka ruler of Saurastra, defeated the Satavahana twice but  did not destroy them on account of matrimonial relationship.
• Yajnasri Satkami was the last great king of this line and he recovered konkan and Malwa from Saka ruler. He was a lower of trade and navigation.
• Hala, a Satavahana king, wrote Gathasaptsati, a Prakrit text.
• The Satavahana were first ruler to make land grants to Brahamanas.
• There were certain military and feudal traits in administration of Satavahanas Kataka AND Skandhar Varas were military camps and settlement.
• The Satavahanas show traces of matrilineal social structure. It was customary for the king to be named after his mother.
• The two common religious construction were the Buddhist temple which were called ‘Chaitya’ and the Monastry which were called ‘Vihara’.
• The most famous Chaitya is that of Karle in western Deccan.

• During the 1,000 B.C., the present states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala (in southern India) were inhabited by megalithic people. The important phase of the ancient history of south India is from the Megalithic period to about A.D. 300.

Megalithic Phase

• The literary meaning of the term megaliths is ‘big stones’ i.e. ‘mega’ means big and ‘lit’ means stones.
• But the big stones are not associated with the megalith culture.
• The megalithic culture is known for its burials.
• The abundance of iron tools and a Black-and-Red pottery with the burials is the main identifying features of the megalithic culture.
• The megalithic culture suggests that there was an abrupt change from the Neolithic stage into the Iron Age.
• And, they did not experience the intermediate Chalcolithic or Bronze Age.

Megalithic Tools

• Undoubtedly, there was a wide range of variety in Megalithic construction, but the typical identity was a Black-and-Red ware and distinctive iron tools. They have uniformity all over the peninsula.
• The pottery shapes include conical or looped lids, carinated vases, pedestalled bowls, spouted dishes, etc.
• The iron tool includes axes with crossed straps, sickles, tripods, tridents, spearheads, swords, lamp hangers, arrowheads, and lamps.
• Iron Age, in the history of India, is a period when the use of iron for tools and weapons became common, but during this time, the dated literature also began to be written. Therefore, the period of Megalithics marked a point in time where prehistory ends and history begins.
• The builders of these Megalithics remain unknown to northern people because no reference to these monuments has been traced in Sanskrit or Prakrit literature though the early Tamil literature does contain descriptions of these burial practices.
• Sources of Megalithic Period
• The earliest account about the people and kingdoms of the area are preserved in three forms that is Ashokan inscriptions; Sangam literature; and Megasthenese's accounts.
• The Rock Edict II and XIII of Ashoka described the southern kingdoms of Chola, Pandya, Satyaputra, Keralaputra, and Tambapanni.
• Ashoka's kindness to these neighboring states has been very much proved by the fact that he made provisions for medicines and food items etc. for animals and humans of these kingdoms.
• In the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela, it has been found that Ashoka was credited for defeating a confederacy of Tamil states.
• A detailed description of south Indian states is found in Sangam literature belonging to the first four centuries of the Christian era.
• The Tamil language is the oldest among the spoken and literary languages of south India. Sangam literature was written in this language.
• The Pandyan kings assembled literary assemblies called as ‘Sangam’.
• Sangam literature consisted the collection of verses, lyrics, and idylls, which were composed by poets and scholars.
• Sangam literature preserves folk memory about the society and life (in south India) between the 3rd Century B.C. and 3rd century A.D.

• In the 4th century B.C. the cultural and economic contact between the north and Deep South known as ‘Tamilkam’ or ‘Tamizhakam’ became extremely important.
• The route to south called ‘Dakshinapath’ was valued greatly by people of north because south supplied golds, pearls, and various precious stones.
• The Asokan inscription of 2nd and 13th Rock Edicts mentions the Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas, Satyaputuras, and Tamrapani or people of Sri Lanka. Of theser only the Stayaputras are not clearly identified.
• Asoka’s title ‘dear to god’ was adopted by Tamil chiefs.

The pandayas (emblem – fish)

• The Pandyas were first mentioned by Megas hanese, who said that their kingdom was famous for pearls.
• The Pandyan territory included the modem districts of Tirnelvell, Ramanad and Maduari in Tamil Nadu it had its capital at Madurari, situated on the banks of Vaigai river.
• The Pandya king profited from trade with Roman empire and sent emissaries to Roman emperor Augusts and Trojan.
• The Pandyas are mentioned in Asokan edicts and in the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
• The earliest known Pandyan ruler was Mudukudumi, who as a great conqueror.
• The most reputed Pandyan ruler was Nedunjhelian who ruled from Madurai. He accused Kovalan of theft. Thus, the city of Madhurai was laid under a curse by Kannagi.

The cholas (emblem – tiger)

• The Chola kingdom called as Cholamandalam was situated to the North East of Pandya kingdom between Pennar and VellarRiver.
• The Chola kingdom corresponded to modern Tanjore and Tiruchirapalli districts.
• Its inland capital was ‘Uraiyur’ a place famous for cotton trade.
• Puhar identical with Kaveripathanam was the main port of Cholas and served as altermative capital of Cholas.
• The earliest known Chola king was Elara who in 2nd century B.C. conquered Sri lanka and ruled over it for nearly 50 years.
• Their greatest king was KARIKALA (man with charred leg) who founded Puhar and constructed 160 km of embankment along the KaveriRiver.
• One of the main source of wealth of Cholas was trade in cotton cloth.
• The maintained an efficient navy.
• The Cholas were wiped out in the attack of Pallavas from North.

The cheras – (emblem – bow)

• The Chera country occupied the portion of both Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
• The capital of Cheras was Vanjji.
• It main parts were Muzris and Tondi.
• The Romans set up two regiment at Muzris identical with Cranganore in Chera country. They also built a temple of Augustus at Muzris.
• One of the earliest and better known among Chera rulers was ‘Udiyangeral’. It is said that he fed both the armies of Kurukshetra war and so earned the title Udiyangeral.
• The greatest of Chera king however was ‘Senguttuvan’ or Red Chera. It is said that he invaded north and even crossed the Ganga.
• He was also the founder of the famous ‘Pattini culti’ related to worship of goddess of chastiy – Kannagi.

Sangam administration

• The king was the center of administration. He was called Ko, Mannam, Vendan Korravan or Iraivan.
• Avai           - Court of crowned monarch.
• Perunal – Kings birthday.
• Officials : (1) Amaichehar – Ministers (2) Purohitar – Purohits (3) Dutar – Envoys (4) Senapatiyar – Senapati (5) Ordar – Spies.
• The kingdom was divided into mandalam, nada (province) urs (town), sirur (small village), perur (big village).
• Pattinam- name of coastal town
• Puhar-Harbour areas.
• Cheri- suburb of town.

Revenue administration

Social life

• The kshatriyas and vaishyas appear as regular varna in Sangam text. But warriors form an important element in polity and society.
• VELLALAAS- Rich peasants, ARASAR – ruling class
• Kadaisiyar- was the member of lowest class and they performed agricultural operations.
• Pariyars- A gricultural labourers.
• Puliyans- Rope makers
• Religion- The people of hilly areas worshipped Murugan who came to be called Subryamanya in earlier medieval times.
• Indra- Was god of Marudam worshiped by agriculturist
• Varuna- The fisherman and people of coastal region worshipped Varuana.
• Korravai- Goddess of Vicotry.
• Other Known gods were Shiva, Kuber, Yama, Tirumala, (Vishnu), Balram etc.

Sangam literature

• Samgam was a college or assembly of Tamil poets held probably under royal patronage of Pandyan kings in Madurai. Tradition persists thatit lasted for 9990 years attended by 8,598 poets and 197 Pandyan kings.
• The first Sangam was attended by gods and legendary sages and all its works have perished.
• Of the second sangam, there survives only the work of the early Tamil Grammar “Tolkappiyam” written by Tolkapiyyar.
• The Sangam literature can roughly be divided into two groups narrative and didactic.
• The narrative text are called Melkannaku or eighteen major works consisting of eight anthologies (Ethutogai) and ten idylls (Pattupattu).
• The didactic works are called Kilkannaku or eighteen minr work consisting of Tirukural and Naladiyar.

The epics

• Silappadikaram (Jewelled Anklet)
• Written by Ilango Adigal, it deal with her story of Kovalam and Madhavi of Kaveripahinam.
• Manimekalai         - Written by Sattnar, deal with adventure of daughter born of Kovalan and Madhavi.
• Sivaga Sindamani  -Written by Tiruttakkardevas.