Region

Distribution

Characteristics

Flora and Fauna

Economic Activity or Life

Other Information

The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate

• 5° and 10° North and South of the equator.
• Lowlands of Amazon, the Congo, Malaysia and the East Indies

• The influence of the on-shore trade winds, gives rise to a modified type of equatorial climate with monsoonal influences.
• Uniformity of temperature throughout the year; No winter
• Cloudiness and heavy precipitation help to moderate the daily temperature
• Diurnal range of temperature is small
• Most of the rainfall is convectional, with thunderstorm & lightening often accompanying the torrential showers.
• Thunder and lightning often accompany the torrential showers and the amount of rainfall recorded in one single afternoon may be as much as deserts receive for the entire year
• There are some intermittent showers from cyclonic atmospheric disturbances caused by the convergence of air currents in the Doldrums
• Relative humidity- High

Flora-

• High temperature and abundant rainfall support a luxuriant vegetation that is the tropical rainforest
• In the Amazon lowlands, forest is so dense, that a special term- Selvas is used
• Growing season is all year round
• A great variety of vegetation
• Comprising of a multitude of evergreen trees that yield tropical hardwood example mahogany, ebony, greenheart, etc, smaller palm trees, lianas and epiphytes.
• Trees aren't found in pure strands, making commercial exploitation tough
• Top view of a tropical rainforest appears like a thick canopy, vertically stratified

Fauna-

• Vivid variety of organisms.
• Biodiversity Hotspots
• The Yasuni Tropical rainforest in Ecuador is the world's most biologically diverse place
• Populated with insects like butterflies, beetles, arachnids like spiders and ticks, worms, reptiles like snakes and lizards, amphibians like frog and toads, birds like parrots and toucans, mammals like sloths and jaguars
• Occupy different strata of the forest
• Absence of meadow grass so bullocks or buffaloes are kept mainly as beasts of burden

• Sparsely populated
• In the forest most primitive people live as hunters and collectors
• Some practice slash and burn agriculture
• Less luxuriant secondary forests known as Belukars in Malaysia spring up in areas abandoned after slash and burn agriculture
• Tribes-  Pygmies in Congo Basin, Orang Asli in Malaysia
• Ideal for cultivation of rubber, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, spices, sago, cinchona etc.
• Prevalence of bacteria and insects pests due to suitable climatic conditions thereby can easily fall prey to diseases
• Jungle hinders development because the jungle is so luxuriant that it is quite a problem to clear a small patch of land and even more difficult to maintain it
• Commercial exploitation is difficult due to lack of pure strands of tress

• Precipitation is heavy between 60 inches and 100 inches
• Least rain falls at the June and December solstices
• Distinct- Double rainfall peaks coinciding with the equinoxes are a characteristic feature of equatorial which is not found in any other type of climate.
• Kota  Bharu, Kelantan receives most of its rainfall from the North East monsoon at the end of the year and Rangoon, Burma, from the South West monsoon between June and September.

Soil-

• It is a misconception that tropical soils are rich.
• In its virgin, untouched state, due to heavy leaf fall and decomposition, it is fairly fertile due to humus formation.
• But once humus is used up and natural vegetation cover is removed, the torrential rainfall soon washes out the nutrients  

Region

Distribution

Characteristics

Flora and Fauna

Economic Activity or Life

Other Information

The Tropical Monsoon Climate

Indian sub continent, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Parts of Vietnam and south China and Northern Australia

On shore wet monsoons in summer and off shore dry monsoons in winter

Basic cause of monsoon climates is the difference in the rate if heating and cooling of land and sea.

 Retreating Monsoon- The amount and frequency of rain decreases towards the end of the rainy season it retreats gradually Southwards after mid September.

Flora-

Trees are normally deciduous because of marked period during which the shed their leaves to withstand the drought

Forests yield valuable timber and are prized for their durable wood. Eg. Teak

Other kinds of timber include Sal, Acacia and some varieties of Eucalyptus in northern Australia

Fauna-

The tropical monsoon forests host diverse species of animals

Unique varieties of insects amphibians, reptiles, birds are found

Host a  variety of mammals species like the elephant, lion, tiger, monkeys, sloth, bear and wild dog etc.

The area is densely populated.

A large part of the population practices extensive agriculture

The tropical soils are mainly latosolic, rapidly leached and easily exhausted the first crop maybe bountiful but the subsequent harvests deteriorate

Practices like shifting cultivation are prevalent

Shifting cultivation is so widely practised amongst indigenous people that different local names are used in different countries for example ladang in Malaysia, taungya in Burma, tamrai in Thailand, caingin in Philippines, humah in Java, chena in Sri Lanka and milpa in Africa and Central America

In regions like Indian sub continent three distinct seasons are found i.e.

The cool, dry season (October to February)

Low temperature, frosts may occur at night in the cold or north

High temperature prevails over the land mass

The Hot dry season (March to mid June)

Temperatures rises sharply with sun's northward shift to the Tropic of Cancer

Stifling heat and low relative humidity

Low pressure develops over land mass

The rainy season (mid June to September)

Torrential downpour occurs

As much as 95% of the annual rainfall is concentrated within four months

Agriculture development in the monsoon lands

Much of the monsoon forest have been cleared for agriculture to support the very dense population

1) Wet paddy cultivation

Rice is the most important and staple crop and is grown in tropical lowlands wherever the rain exceeds 70 inches.

It is the most characteristic crop of monsoon lands.

2) Lowland cash crops

Most important being cane sugar

Almost 2/3rd of world's sugar production comes from tropical countries like India, Java, Cuba, and Jamaica etc.

Other crops like jute in India and Bangladesh, hemp in Philippines, Indigo, cotton, bananas, coconut, spices are also cultivated

3) Highland Plantation crops

Crops like tea and coffee are extensively cultivated

4) Lumbering

Particularly important in the continental South East Asia

Tropical deciduous trees are used to procure timber

of various tropical deciduous trees, teak (of which Burma is the leading producer) is perhaps the most sought after due to its great durability, strength, immunity to shrinkage, fungus attack and insects

The Tropical Marine Climate

Central America, West Indies, North- Eastern Australia, Philippines, parts of East Africa, Madagascar, the Guinea coast and Eastern Brazil

• Climate is modified by the influence of the on shore trade winds all year round.
• Rainfall is both orographic and convectional
• It is prone to severe tropical cyclones, hurricanes or typhoons

Region

Distribution

Characteristics

Flora and Fauna

Economic Activity or Life

Other Information

The Savanna or Sudan Climate

Transitional type between equatorial forests and trade wind deserts

Confined within tropics, best developed in Sudan, hence the name

Covers western Sudan, curves Southward into East Africa and Southern Africa

South America- two distinct regions i.e. Llanos of Orinoco basin and Campos of Brazilian highlands

Australian savanna- north of Tropic of Capricorn

Characterised by alternate hot rainy season and cool dry season

The length of the rainy season and the annual total rainfall decreases appreciably from equatorial region polewards toward the desert fringes

Annual precipitation is less than that of the tropical monsoon climate and the length of the wet and dry season is differs with locality

Hot rainy season in Northern Hemisphere- May to September and in Southern H.- October to March

The monthly temperature hovers between 70° F and 90° F for lowland stations.

Annual temperature range of 20° F is typical

High contrast in day and night temperature, therefore an extreme diurnal range

Night frosts are common

Trade winds are the prevailing winds, which bring rain to the coastal regions

Flora-

Typified by tall grass and short trees

Terms bush veld/ parkland used to describe the landscape

In between the tall grass are scattered short trees

Deciduous trees to prevent excessive loss of water due to transpiration as in acacia

Other trees like baobab and bottle trees have broad trunks with water storing devices to survive through the prolonged drought

Trees mostly hard, gnarled and thorny may exude gums

Vegetative luxuriance reaches its peak in the rainy season

Grass is tall and coarse growing upto 6-12 feet

The Elephant grass may attain a height of even 15 feet

Tall grass tends to grow in compact tufts and has a long, extensive root system

Greenish when well nourished, turns yellow in dry season

As rainfall diminishes towards the desert, the savanna merges into thorny scrub.

Fauna-

Home of wild animals especially the African Savanna

Known as Big Game country

Two main groups of animals, namely the herbivores and carnivores

Herbivores- very alert, move swiftly, fast runners. Eg. Zebra, antelope, deer, giraffe, elephant etc.

Carnivore- excellent camouflage, good runners Eg. Lion, tiger, leopard, panther, hyena etc.

Diverse species of birds, snakes, butterflies, moths and insects are present

Numerous species of reptiles and mammals along rivers and in marshy lakes. Eg. crocodiles, alligator, monitor and giant lizards, rhinoceroses, hippopotamus etc.

Different tribes live in these regions.

Either pastoralists like the Masai of Eastern Africa or settles cultivators like Hausa of Northern Nigeria.

The Masai people keep the Zebu cattle (with humps and long horns)

The Hausa people don’t practice shifting cultivation

Savanna has immense agricultural potential for plantation agriculture of cotton, cane sugar, coffee, groundnuts etc.

Droughts are a menace at times

Natural cattle country and many of the native people are infact herdsman or pastoralists

The Zebu cattle or bony and yield little meat or milk

High incidence of tropical diseases example the sleeping sickness carried by the tsetse fly

Soil-

The Sudan climate with distinct wet and dry period is also responsible for the rapid deterioration of soil fertility

During the rainy season, torrential downpour of heavy rain cause leeching in which most of the plant nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate and potash are dissolved and washed away.

During the dry season intense heating and evaporation drive up most of the water

Many Savanna areas therefore have poor lateritic soils which are incapable of supporting good crops

Region

Distribution

Characteristics

Flora and Fauna

Economic Activity or Life

Other Information

The Hot Desert and Mid Latitude Desert Climates

The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coast of continents between the 15 to 30 North and South latitudes

Sahara Desert is the largest single stretch of a desert

The other important hot deserts are the great Australian desert, the Arabian desert, the Iranian desert, Thar desert, Kalahari desert, Namib desert, the North American desert extending from Mexico into USA (called by different names as in Mohave, Sonoran, Californian and Mexican), the Atacama desert

Among the mid latitude deserts, many are found on plateaus and are at a considerable distance from the sea

These are the Gobi, Turkestan and Patagonian deserts

Hot Desert-

Annual precipitation is mostly less than 10 inches

High aridity which is the most outstanding feature of the desert climate

The hot deserts lie astride the horse latitudes or the subtropical high-pressure belts, where the air is descending, a condition least favourable for precipitations of any kind to take place. The rain bearing trade winds blow of shore and the westerlies that are onshore blow outside the desert limits. Whatever winds reach the desert blow from cooler to warmer regions, and there relative humidity is lowered making condensation almost impossible

Relative humidity is extremely low

Precipitation is scarce and unreliable

Rain normally occurs as violent thunderstorms of the convectional type, it bursts suddenly and pours continuously for a few hours over small areas.

Thunderstorms are very violent and it has disastrous consequences on desert landforms

Hottest spots on the earth and have high temperatures throughout the year

There is no cold season in the hot deserts and the average summer temperatures are obvious that is a clear, cloudless sky, intense insolation, dry air and a rapid rate of evaporation

The diurnal range of temperature in the desert is very great. A daily temperature range of 30 to 40 F is common, though in the death valley of California and exceptionally great diurnal range of 74 F has been recorded

Frosts may occur at night during the winter

Mid-Latitude Deserts-

Similar to the hot deserts

High aridity

These inland basins lie hundreds of miles from the sea, and are sheltered by the high mountains around them as a result of which, they are cut off from the rain bearding winds

Summers are very hot almost 80 F in July at kashgar and winters are extremely cold which two months below freezing point

The annual range of temperature is 58 F much greater than that of the hot deserts

Continentality accounts for the extremes in temperatures

Winters are often severe, freezing lakes and rivers and strong cold winds blow all the time

When the ice thaws in early summer, floods are likely to occur

The greatest inhabiting factors to settlement are the winter cold and the permanent aridity, besides the remoteness of the area

Flora-

Supports scrub vegetation such as the grass, herbs, weeds, bulbs etc.

Mostly ephemerals and xerophytes are found

Un-favourable for extensive plant growth

Plants like bulbous cacti, thorny, bushes, long rooted wiry grasses and scattered dwarf acacias are found

Trees are rare except where there is abundant groundwater to support clusters of date palms

Plants that exist in deserts have highly specialised means of adapting themselves to the arid environment

Moreover absence of moisture retards the rate of decomposition as a result of which the desert soils are very deficient in humus

Most desert shrubs have long roots and are well spaced out to gather moisture and search for groundwater

Plants have few or no leaves and the foliage is either waxy, leathery, hairy or needle shaped to reduce transpirational losses

Succulent stems, phylloclades, cladodes etc. are common

seeds have tough skins in order to sustain during dormancy

Fauna-

Referred to as xerocole

Mostly nocturnal or crepuscular animals are found here which stay in the shade or burrows during the day

Use water efficiently eg. by concentrating their urine

Need to combat the excessive heat and scarcity of water

Adaptations like large ears (to allow for dissipation of heat), less amount of fat, insulating coats, aestivation and hibernation are common

Animals are generally cursorial and fossorial

Common animals being insects, reptiles like lizards and snakes, birds like ostrich, mammals like fennec fox, camels, Arabian onyx, rabbits etc.

Despite its inhospitality the desert has always been inhabited by different groups

The Egyptians have attained a high level of civilisation and others like Bedouin Arabs have fared quite well with their flocks of sheep, goats, camels and horses

The desert habitants can be grouped as follows-

1) The primitive hunters and collectors

Eg. The Bushmen (Kalahari desert) and Bindibu (Australia)

are nomadic hunters and food gatherers

Travel in small family groups and live in sherms and wurlies respectively

2) The nomadic herdsmen

More advanced group of desert dwellers who pursue a livestock economy

Ride on animals instead of walking and a heavily clad against the blazing sun

Eg. Bedouins of Arabia, Tuaregs of Sahara

Can also engage in trade activities

3) The caravan traders

Traveling merchants of the desert

Carried a wide range of goods into remote interiors where their merchandise was highly sought after

4) The settled cultivators

Near the oasis, rivers or water sources

Cultivate rice and cotton in summer and wheat, barley, beans and other minor crops in winters

5) The mining settlers

Mining camps that have sprung up following the discovery of certain mineral deposits have attracted many immigrants into the desert

Diamonds in Kalahari, sodium nitrate in Atacama, Uranium in Utah, Oil in Saharan and Arabian desert etc.

Desert

Any region having less than 25 cm of auunal rainfall or evapotranspiration losses exceeding the precipitation is termed as a desert

They are regions of scanty rainfall which may be hot like the hot deserts of Saharan type or temperate as are the mid-latitude deserts like the Gobi desert

The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effect of off-shore trade winds hence are also called Trade Wind Deserts

The temperate deserts are rainless because of their interior location in the temperate latitudes, well away from the rain bearing winds.

Region

Distribution

Characteristics

Flora and Fauna

Economic Activity or Life

The Warm Temperate Western Margin (Mediterranean) climate

Entirely confined to the western portion of continental masses between 30° to 45° north and south of the equator

Basic cause of which is shifting of the wind belts

The area around the Mediterranean sea has the greatest extent of this type of climate and hence the name

The best developed Mediterranean kind of climate is experienced in the central Chile

Other regions experiencing this kind of climate are California around san Francisco, Cape Town, Southern Australia that is the Adelaide region, South Western Australia that is the Swanland region

1. A dry, warm summer with off shore trade winds

High temperature conditions prevail

Sun is overhead the Tropic of Cancer, and the belt of influence of the westerlies is shifted a little pole-ward, therefore the rain bearing winds aren't likely to reach these lands

Prevailing trade winds are offshore

The air is dry, heat is intense

Relative humidity is low

Prolonged droughts are common

2) A concentration of rainfall in winter with on-shore westerlies

Most of the precipitation in winter when the Westerlies shift towards the Equator

The rain comes in heavy showers

Rain normally begins in September reaching its peak somewhere in October

3) Bright, sunny weather with hot dry summers and wet, mild winters

Transitional between hot deserts in th south and cool temperate maritime climate in the north

Summers are warm and bright and winters are mild and cool

The annual temperature range is between 15 to 25 F

4) The prominence of local winds around the Mediterranean sea

Many local winds, some hot, others cold are common around the Mediterranean sea

Like Sirocco, Mistral, Bora etc.

Flora-

Growth is almost restricted to autumn and spring when the temperature is higher and moisture is just sufficient

The long summer droughts check the growth

Vegetation types-

Mediterranean evergreen forests- open woodlands with evergreen oaks especially cork oak, trees have massive trunks, extensive root system. Giant sequoia is typical of California

Evergreen coniferous trees- grow in the cooler highlands

Include pines, firs, cedars

Mediterranean bushes and shrubs- most predominant vegetation. Common species being laurel, myrtle, lavender, rosemary etc.

This kind of vegetation is called maquis in southern France, macchia in Italy, chaparral in California, mallee scrub in Australia

Grass- not well suited to grow here. The ones which do grow are wiry, bunchy

Wide range of citrus fruits are grown

Fauna-

Low rainfall and hot summers make it a hard place for animals to survive

Insects like bumblebees, ants, beetles are common

Toads are also common

Snakes are also found Eg. the grass snake, adder etc.

Birds like cuckoo, flamingo, swan etc. are present

Mammals include a vivid variety of bats, wolves, Weasel, deer, rabbits etc. are found

Despite the semi arid conditions prevailing over many parts, the climate overall is favourable. It's warm and bright summers and cool moist winters enable a wide range of crops to be cultivated.

Important for the fruit cultivation, cereal growing, wine making and agricultural industries as well as engineering and mining

ORCHARD Farming

Mediterranean lands are also known as the worlds Orchard lands

A wide range of citrus fruits such as Oranges, lemons, Limes, Grapefruit etc. are grown

The thick, leathery skin of the citrus fruits prevents excessive transpiration and the long, sunny summer enables the fruits to be ripened and harvested

Olives, walnuts, hazelnuts, almonds, peaches, apricots, pears, plums, cherries and figs are also cultivated

Crop Cultivation-

Besides orchard fruits, many field crops are also cultivated

Cereals being the most prominent

Wheat is the leading crop and primarily the hard winter wheat

In the more fertile regions vegetables, flowers are also grown for the local market

Wine Production-

Viticulture is extensively practiced

Other Industries like fruit canning, fruit processing etc. are also present

Region

Distribution

Characteristics

Flora and Fauna

Economic Activity or Life

Other Information

The Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate

Lie in the westerly wind belt, are so remote from maritime influence, that they are practically tree less

Entirely continental in the Northern Hemisphere

The ones in the Southern Hemisphere enjoy considerable amount of maritime influence

Called Steppes in Eurasia

Prairies in North America

Pampas in Argentina and Uruguay

Velds in South Africa

Downs in Australia (Murray- Darling basin area)

Temperature-

Climate is continental and thus has extremes of temperature

The summers are very warm

The winters are very cold, especially in Eurasia

The climate in the Southern Hemisphere is never severe, because of the moderating effects of the oceans

Precipitation-

In the Northern hemisphere, due to the continental position, it is light

Average rainfall may be taken as about 20 inches

Maximum in summer

In the Southern Hemisphere influenced by the maritime effect

The average annual precipitation is always more than 20 inches because of the warm ocean currents that wash the shores

Flora-

Mostly grasses which are shorter than the savanna regions

The grasses are short, wiry and sparse. Found in discontinuous clumps with bare soil exposed between them

Trees are very scarce because of the scanty rainfall long droughts and the severe winters, except along the water courses where willows, poplars or alders can be found

As we move polewards, an increase in precipitation gives rise to a transitional zone where some conifers gradually appear.

Have been ploughed up for extensive agriculture, crops like wheat, maize are cultivated

Tufted grasses have been replaced by nutritious Lucerne or alfalfa grass for cattle and sheep rearing

Fauna-

have a low diversity of wildlife, but supports a high abundance of wildlife

Grazing animals are found here

The dominant animals being bison, pronghorns, buffalo, deer etc.

Apart from them rodents are also found

Cheetah, lion, wolves etc. also found (keep a check on overgrazing)

• Were initially dominated by nomadic and semi nomadic people like Kirghiz of the Asiatic steppes
• Now are being used for extensive agriculture which includes mechanized wheat cultivation and hence the name Granaries of the World
• Ranching is also done
• Various kinds of economic activities are prevalent, they are as follows

1) Nomadic Herding- migratory animal grazing, almost disappeared from major grasslands. Tribes like Kirghiz, Kazakhs, Kalmuk were the major wandering tribes

2) Extensive Mechanized Wheat Cultivation- Ideal for wheat cultivation

3) Pastoral Farming- Natural conditions support animal rearing. cattle, sheep, Pigs and horses do well in these regions. Bountiful production of beef, mutton, wool, hides, milk, butter, cheese and other dairy products

Soil-

• Have soils that are nutrient rich from the growth and decay of deep, many branched grass roots
• The rotted roots hold the soil together and provide a food source for living plants
• The world’s most eastern prairies of the USA, the Pampas of South America and the steppes of Ukraine and Russia

Region

Distribution

Characteristics

Flora and Fauna

Economic Activity or Life

Other Information

The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (China Type) Climate

Found on the eastern margins of continents, just outside the tropics

In the Northern Hemisphere parts of China and regions bordering Gulf of Mexico experience this kind of climate

In the Southern Hemisphere, this kind of climate is experienced along, the warm temperate eastern coastlands of all three continents as in, in the New South Wales, Natal, maize belts of Paraguay-Uruguay basin regions.

Typified by a warm moist summer and a cool dry winter

The mean monthly temperature varies between 40° F and 78° F and is strongly modified by maritime influence

Though frosts are rare, occasionally occur in the colder interiors

The relative humidity is a little high in mid-summer when heat becomes oppressive and can be very trying

Rainfall is more than moderate anything from 25 inches to 60 inches

Rainfall is uniformly distributed throughout the year, every month has rainfall except in the interior of central China where there is a distinct dry season

There is a good deal of variation in climate within the eastern margins and is broadly divisible into three main types as follows-

The China Type (Central and North China, including Southern Japan), the temperature monsoonal type

The Gulf Type (South eastern United States), the slight monsoonal type

The Natal Type (all the warm temperate eastern margin areas of the southern hemisphere including the Natal, Eastern Australia, Southern Brazil and Northern Argentina), non monsoonal

Flora-

Have a luxuriant vegetation

Since the perennial plant growth is not checked by wither a dry season or by a cold season, the conditions are well suited to host a rich diversity of plant life including grasses, bamboos, lianas, ferns, palms and forests

The lowlands are home to both Evergreen broadleaved forests and deciduous trees

The highlands are home to various species of conifers such as pines, cypresses etc.

Valuable timber species like eucalyptus in Australia, quebracho (axe breaker) in South American are found

Suitable for cultivation of sub- tropical crops like cotton, maize and fruits

Fauna-

Numerous varieties of birds, insects are found

Reptiles like lizards, snakes also present

Frogs and toads are restricted to moist areas

Coastal regions host a vivid variety of fishes

Mammals like monkeys, antelopes, pandas, rabbits etc, are common

Most productive parts of the middle latitudes

There is adequate rainfall, no prolonged drought and the cold season is warm enough for most crops to survive

Growing season almost continuous throughout the year

Most intensively tilled parts of the earth to procure food.

Densely populated

Widespread cultivation of maize, cotton, corn, fruits, tobacco, tea, Mulberries, cane sugar, coffee etc.

Dairying is also practised as prevalent in New South Wales and Victoria

Widespread rice cultivation in China

Corn, Cotton and Tobacco are extensively grown in the Gulf states of America

Cultivation of cane sugar, cotton, tobacco, maize, Yerba mate (Paraguay tea), parana pine, eucalyptus and animal rearing are common in the temperate eastern margin regions of the Southern Hemisphere

The China Type-

Most typical climate of warm temperate eastern margin regions

South east monsoon brings good amount of precipitation in summer

A steep gradient is set up between the cold interiors of Mongolia and Siberia and the warmer Pacific coastlands in winter

Great annual temperature range

Occurrence of typhoons is common, which are intense tropical cyclones that originate in the Pacific Ocean and move westwards to the coastlands bordering the South China Sea, most frequent in late summer from July to September

The Gulf type

The Gulf Atlantic regions of United States experience of type of climate similar to the central China except that the monsoonal characteristics or less well established

No complete seasonal wind reversal, for the pressure gradient between mainland America and the Atlantic Ocean is less marked.

Moderate annual range of temperature

Summers are warm and pleasant, Miami being an important tourist destination

The annual rainfall is heavy

Sometimes violent tornadoes occur due to intense local heating of land

The Natal Type-

There are three distinct areas on the eastern coast of the southern continents lying just south of the Tropic of Capricorn, which experience this kind of climate. The narrowness of the continents and the dominance of maritime influence eliminate the monsoonal elements which characterize the corresponding climates of the Northern Hemisphere

Those South East Trade winds bring about a more even distribution of rainfall throughout the year

The rain comes in prolonged showers and much of the water seeps into the ground and there is little run off so the regions are suitable for agriculture

A small annual range of temperature

Violent local storms are also prevalent

Region

Distribution

Characteristics

Flora and Fauna

Economic Activity or Life

Other Information

The Cool Temperate Western Margin (British type) climate

From Britain the climatic belt stretches far inland into the lowlands of north-west Europe including the regions of northern and western France, Belgium, Netherlands Western Norway and also North-western Iberia

In North America the high Rockies prevent the onshore westerlies from penetrating far inland and the British type of climate is confined mainly to the coastlands of British Columbia

In the southern Hemisphere the climate is experienced in southern Chile, Tasmania and most parts of New Zealand, particularly in South Island

Temperature-

The mean annual temperatures are usually between 40° to 60° F in the Northern Hemisphere

The summers are never very warm

The winters are abnormally mild and no stations actually record mean January temperatures below freezing point in the north western Europe attributed to the warming effect of the North Atlantic drift and prevalence of South Westerlies

Night frosts do occur and snow falls in winter

Cold spells caused by the invasion of cold Polar Continental air from the interiors may hit the western margins for a number of weeks

In the southern hemisphere the annual temperature range is reduced to only 16° F

In the southern hemisphere the oceanic influences not only keep the inters very mild but also keep the summer cool

Precipitation-

Adequate rainfall throughout the year with the tendency towards the slight winter or autumn maximum from the cyclonic sources

The western margins have the heaviest rainfall since the rain bearing winds come from the west.

The amount of rainfall decreases Eastwards with increasing distance from the sea

Seasons-

Four distinct seasons can be observed

Winter- snowfall can be expected. It is of a short duration because of a comparatively mild weather

Spring- It is the driest and the most refreshing season

Summer- It is long and sunny

Autumn- Characterised by fall

Flora-

The natural vegetation of this climatic type is the deciduous forest.

The trees shed their leaves in the cold season; it is an adaption for protecting against the winter snow and frost.

Common species of trees include oak, elm, birch, poplar, hornbeam etc.

Willows, alder, aspen are found in the wetter areas

The trees yield valuable temperate hardwood

Other species like chestnut, maple, sycamore, lime can also be found

The trees occur in pure strands making commercial exploitation easy

The deciduous trees are replaced by the conifers in the highlands regions

Fauna-

Insects like ants, butterflies, beetles etc are common

Newts, toads, turtles etc are found

Reptiles like lizards, chameleon, snakes like boa, copperhead are found

Birds such as the owls, finches, crows, cuckoos, cardinals, etc, are found

Mammals such as the leopards, black bear, coyote, dhole, brown bear, groundhog, wolf, wombat etc are there

Densely populated areas

Large part of woodlands have been cleared for fuel, timber or agriculture

Large range of cereals is cultivated for home consumption than exports

Production of machinery, chemicals and other manufactured articles is widespread

Lumbering and fishing also practiced

Various activities are taken up as follows-

1) Market Gardening- highly specialized in North- West Europe. Flowers, Fruits, fresh vegetables, poultry products are in high demand as a result of which this practice is prevalent and thriving

2) Mixed Farming- Farmers practice both arable farming and pastoral farming

3) Sheep Rearing- reared for both mutton and wool

4) Other Agricultural activities- food crops such as potatoes, beet sugar are cultivated

The cool temperate western margins are under the permanent influence of the Westerlies all year round.

They are also regions of much cyclonic activity typical of Britain and are thus, said to experience the British type of climate

Region

Distribution

Characteristics

Flora and Fauna

Economic Activity or Life

Other Information

The Cool temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate

It is experienced only in the Northern Hemisphere, where continents within the high latitudes have a broad east-west spread

On its polewards side, it merges into the Arctic tundra of Canada and Eurasia around the Arctic Circle.

Southwards, the climate becomes less severe and fades into the temperature steppe climate

Absent in the Southern Hemisphere because of the narrowness of the Southern continents in the high latitudes. Moreover the oceanic influence, reduced the severity of the winter

Temperature-

Characterised by a bitterly cold winter of long duration and a cool brief summer.

Spring and autumn are merely brief transitional periods

The temperature during the winter months is always below freezing point

There is a great annual range of temperature

The extremes of temperature are so great in Siberia that it is often referred to as the cold pole of the earth

In North America the extremes are less severe because of the continent's lesser East- West stretch

Heavy snowfall occurs

Frosts occur as early as August and by September lakes and ponds are already icebound

In Russia nearly all rivers are frozen

Occasionally cold, northerly polar winds such as blizzards of Canada and buran of Eurasia blow violently at 50 m.p.h or more at a temperature of 50 F below freezing point. The powdery snowflakes are blown around in the lower atmosphere and visibility is greatly reduced

Precipitation-

The interiors of the Eurasian continent are so remote from maritime influence that annual precipitations cannot be high

A total of 15 to 25 inches is typical of the annual precipitation

It is quite well distributed throughout the year with a summer maximum from convectional rain when the Continental interiors are greatly heated

In winter, the precipitation is in the form of snow as mean temperatures are well below freezing all the time

The total precipitation of the Siberian climate is determined by such factors as altitude, latitude, proximity to the poles, amount of exposure to the influence by westerlies on the western parts and temperate monsoons on the eastern parts and the penetration of cyclones

Snow falls nearly everywhere in USSR in the long cold winter

Flora-

Conifers are best suited to grow in the inhospitable environment

The coniferous forest belts of Eurasia and North America are the richest sources of softwood for use in building construction, furniture, matches, paper and pulp, rayon and other branches of chemical industry.

The world's greatest softwood producers are USSR, USA, Canada, Finland, Norway and Sweden

There are 4 major species in the coniferous forests-

1) Pine eg. white pine, red pine, scots pine, jack pine, lodge pole pine

2) fir eg. Douglas fir and balsam fir

3) Spruce

4) Larch

Their presence in pure strands and the existence of only a few species are a great advantage in commercial forest exploitation

Fauna-

Common insects are found

Mammals like moose, deer, reindeer or caribou, mice, squirrels are found

Predators like wolves, lynxes, bears, foxes and wolverines are common

Apart from them the Siberian tiger is also found

Fur bearing animals like mink, silver fox, etc, are very important

The regions are sparsely populated

The coniferous forest regions are comparatively little developed

The accessible forests are cleared for lumbering, and the others are untouched

The various species of pine, fir, larch and spruce are felled and transported to the saw-mills for extraction of temperate softwood

There is little agriculture as few crops can survive in the sub-Arctic climate of these lands

In the shelters valleys and the land bordering the steppes, some cereals like barley, oats, rye and crops like potatoes raised

Basically two types of economic activities are taken up-

1) Trapping- Here the fur bearing animals are captured and fur is procured from them. The most important fur bearing animals are Muskrat, ermine, mink and silver fox. Gradually the fur farming has replaced hunting

2) Lumbering- This is the most important occupation of the Siberian type of climate the vast reserves of coniferous forests provide the basis for lumbering industry. The trees are felled for many purposes like-

a) Saw milling

b) paper and pulp industry

c) As a fuel

d) As an industrial raw material

Soil-

• The Podzolized soils of the coniferous forests are poor.
• They are excessively leached and very acidic.
• The evergreen trees provide little leaf fall for humus formation and the rate of decomposition of leathery needled is slow

Coniferous forests-

• They are of moderate density
• They are uniform and grow straight and tall
• Almost all conifers are evergreen
• They are conical in shape
• Leaves are small, thick, leathery and needle shaped
• There is little undergrowth

Region

Distribution

Characteristics

Flora and Fauna

Economic Activity or Life

Other Information

The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian) Climate

Found only in two regions

One is the north eastern North America including eastern Canada, north-east USA and Newfoundland (North American regions)

The other regions is the eastern coastlands of Asia including Eastern Siberia, North China, Manchuria, Korea and Northern Japan (Asiatic region)

This climatic type is absent in the Southern hemisphere

Intermediate type between the British and Siberian type

Has features of both, the maritime and the continental climates

Has cold, dry winters and warm, wet summers

Winter temperatures may be well below freezing point and snow falls to quite a depth

Summers are as warm as the tropics

Rain falls throughout the year, there is a distinct summer maximum

Of the annual precipitation of 30-60 inches, two thirds come in summer

Winter is dry and cold because winds are dry

Flora-

Predominant vegetation is the cool temperate forest

Heavy rainfall, warm summers and damp air from fogs, all favor the growth of trees.

Forests tend to be coniferous north of the 50 North latitude

Species like fir, spruce, larch are common

Forests south of the 50 North Latitude give way to the deciduous forests

Species like oak, maple, birch are found

A long growing season and an adequate supply of moisture encourages, rapid growth of ferns and other species

Trees occur in pure strands

Food and cash crops also raised

Fauna-

Insects like beetles, ants, butterflies are common

A multitude of fish varieties like the cod, herring, haddock etc. are found

Crabs, lobsters, shell fish common

Frogs can also be seen

Birds like Woodpecker, cardinals, hawks, eagles, cranes are common

Mammals like deer, bear, cougar, wolves, squirrels etc. present

Lumbering and the associated timber, paper and pulp industries are the most important economic undertaking

Agriculture is less prevalent because of the severity of the winter and its long duration.

Still some crops like oats, barley, potatoes are harvested

Apart from this cultivation of soya bean is widespread in the Asiatic regions.

Farmers engaged in dairy farming

Fruit growing is prevalent in the mild maritime areas

Fishing is the most outstanding and widespread economic activity

Exceptionally well developed in the Newfound lands and Japan region

Chief fish caught are cod, haddock, hake, herring, mackerel etc.

Crabs, lobsters and shrimps are also trapped

Pearl culture is extensively practiced in Japan

The North American Region-

Uniformity of precipitation, with a late summer maximum

No month is really dry and the driest month November, also 2.5 inches of rain

The uniformity of precipitation is largely due to the Atlantic influence and that of the Great lakes

the Gulf Stream, increases the moisture content of easterly winds from the open Atlantic

The prevailing westerlies which penetrate across the Rockies carry depressions over the Great lakes to the new England states

These winds thus promote wet conditions specially in winter

The meeting of the warm Gulf stream and the cold Labrador current on the coastal waters off Newfoundland produces dense mist and fog and gives rise to much precipitation.

Newfoundland experiences more drizzle than any other part of the world

Temperatures are normally high in summer

The temperature drops considerably in winter

Snowfall occurs during winter

The Asiatic region-

Rainfall distribution is far less uniform

Winters are cold and very dry

Summers are very warm and exceptionally wet

The mountainous interior of China has pronounced continental effects

Great annual range of temperature

Winter precipitation is in the form of snow

The climate of Japan, is modified by its insularity and also by the meeting of warm and cold ocean currents

The meeting of cold Oyashio and warm Kuroshio produces fog and mist creating a second Newfoundland here

Fishing-

These areas have the world's best fishing grounds as

1) Abundance of Phytoplankton

2) Gently sloping continental shelves

Region

Distribution

Characteristics

Flora and Fauna

Economic Activity or Life

The Arctic or Polar Climate

Mainly regions north of the Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere

In the Southern Hemisphere, the uninhabited continent of Antarctica, is the greatest single stretch of ice caps

Soil-

Levels of sub soil below the ground are permanently frozen

Soil is generally known as permafrost

Poor drainage

Temperature-

Characterised by a very low mean annual temperature

the temperature in the warmest month, June seldom rises to more than 50 F

In mid winter that is around January the temperatures are as low as 35 F

Almost 8 months have temperatures below freezing point

Winters are long and very severe

Summers are cool and brief

With in the Arctic and Antarctic circles there are weeks of continuous darkness

The North Pole experiences six months without light in winter

Sun does not set in summers

Despite that the temperatures remain low because, the sun is low in the sky and much of the warmth of its rays is either reflected by the ground snow or is used up in melting the ice

Water in the soil is frozen to great depths and the summer heat can only thaw the upper 6 inches of soil

Frosts and blizzards are common

Precipitation-

Mainly in the form of snow

Snowfall varies with locality, it may fall either as ice crystals or large, amalgamated snow flakes

rain in polar regions is light not exceeding 12 inches

It takes 10-12 inches of snow to make linch of rain

Maximum precipitation takes place in summer in the form of rain or sleet

Heavy rainfall is recorded in areas where cyclones are frequent

Flora-

Very few plants manage to survive

No trees are there

Supports birches, lichens and sedges

Stunted birches, dwarf willows are found growing in sheltered areas.

Some hardly grasses and the reindeer moss grow along the coastal lowlands

Berry bearing bushes and Arctic flowers bloom in the brief summer

Fauna-

Numerous insects like flies, bumblebees, grasshoppers emerge as the snow thaws.

Birds migrate north during summer

Birds like bald eagle, penguins, puffins etc. are seen

Fishes like cod, trout, salmon are present

Reindeer (caribou), wolves, musk, ox, arctic hare, seals, lemmings, walrus, polar bear are found

Sparsely populated

Human activities are largely confined to the coast

The few people who live in this region are semi nomadic

In Greenland, northern Canada and Alaska live the Eskimos

They used to live as hunters and food gatherers but in recent years more and more of them are settling in permanent huts

The seasonal changes in climate necessitate a nomadic way of life

During winter, they live in compact igloos and during summer, they move out to hunt, so live in tents.

The food is sources from fish, seals, walruses and polar bears

Some hunt caribou and other animals to secure a steady supply of their daily meat, milk, fat, skins and bones

With time certain changes have occurred for instance, now deadly rifles are used instead of traditional harpoons, speed boats are replacing the kayaks.

Mining of certain minerals like gold in Alaska, copper in Canada, iron in Sweden have led to new settlements and collateral development of railways etc.

Various nomadic tribes are found. they are as follows

Lapps of northern Finland and Scandinavia

Samoyeds of Siberia

Yakuts of Lena basin

Koryaks and Chuckchi of Northern Eastern Asia

Eskimos in Greenland, Northern Canada and Alaska

These tribes wander with their herds of reindeer to regions which have pastures