Aryans and The Age of Rigveda

• Originally, the Aryans seem to have lived some where is steppes stretching from southern Russia to central Russia. Then consensus of opinion is that originally they lived some where in the East of Alps.
• On their way to India the Aryans first appeared in Iran (Persia) and a little latter that 1500 B.C. the Aryans appeared in India.
• Rigveda is the earliest specimen of Indo-European language which for the first time said about Aryans in India.
• Rigveda is divided into 10 Mandalas. Books II to VII form its earliest portion and Book I, VIII and X seem to be latest addition.
• The Rigveda has many things in common with the Avesta which is oldest text in Iranian language.
• Kassite Inscription of about 1600 B.C. and Mittanni Inscription of 1400 B.C. found in Iraq bear some Aryan names which suggest that from Iran a branch of Aryans moved toward west.
• According to Rigveda early Aryans first settled in India in the region called ‘SAPTASINDHVA’ or land of seven rivers covered by the area of eastern Afghanistan, Punjab and fringes of western U.P.
• Some rivers of Afghanistan such as river Khubha and river Indus and its five branches – Ravi (Parushni) Beas (Vipas), Chenab (Asikini), Sutlej (Shutdhuri) and Jhelam (Vitasta) are clearly mentioned in Rig Veda.
• The Sindhu indentical with Indus is a important river for Aryans and is repeatedly mentioned.
• Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati and Saryu and some other river are also mentioned. Ganga is mentioned once and Yamuna thrice.
• Sarasawati was the holiest and mighty river visible at one place and invisible at other.
• In Rig Veda, Indra is called ‘Purandara’ which means ‘Destroyer of Fgrts’.
• The Aryans succeeded everywhere because they possessed chariots driven by horse. The Aryan soliders were also equipped with courts of mail (Varman) betterarms.
• The Aryans were engaged in two types of conflict. First, they fought with pre-Aryans and secondly, they fought among themselves.
• They initially came into conflict with indigenous inhabitants called Dasas and Dasyus. The Dasas are also mentioned in Ancient Iranian literature and so Dasas seems to have been a branch of early Aryans.
• The Dasyus in Rig Veda represent the original inhabitants of the country and an Aryan chief who empowered them was called ‘Trasadasyu’.
• The Aryan chief was soft toward the Dasas but strongly hostile to Dasyus. The term Dashyu Haya or Slaughter of Dasyus is repeatedly mentioned in Rig Veda.
• The Dasyus were probably ‘Pani’, a term mentioned in Rig Veda to denote non-Aryans who lifted the cattle of Aryans and probably were phallus worshippers.
• Intra-tribal conflict also rocked the Aryan communities for long. Divided into five tirbes called ‘Panchajana’ the Aryans faught among themselves.
• The Bharata and Tritsu were ruling Aryan clans and they were supported by priest Vashista.

Battle of Ten Kings

• A battle was fought between Bhartas on one hand and host of ten chiefs on other, knows as ‘Battle of Ten Kings’.
•  To one group belong ‘Srinjayas and Bharatas’ and other belonged the (a) Purus (b) Yadavs (c) Anus (d) Turvasa (e) Drahyurs who were in alliance with five minor tribes, namely (a) Alina (b) Pakhatas (c) Bhalnas (d) Siva (e) Vishanini.
• The cause of conflict was division of Ravi water and so, the battle was fought on the banks of River Parushini (Ravi)
• The war ended with the victory of Bharatas led by Sudas and defeated side was led by king Puruktsa.
• The Purus were most important of ten tribes. So, the Bharatas joined hands with Purus and formed a new tribe called Kurus.
• They occupied Delhi and upper portion of Doab and called the area ‘Kurukshetra’.

Rig vedic polity

• Monarchy was the prevailing form of government in Rig Vedic times. The administrative machinery of Aryans in Rig Vedic period worked with tribal chief at the centre because of his successful leadership. He was called Rajan.
• The King was the protector of the tribe called ‘Jana’ mentioned 275 times. The term Janapada is not mentioned at all and the term Rajya occurs only once.
• Primarily a military leader the King fought for cows and not for territories.
• however, Rajan did not exercise unlimited power for he had to reckon with tribal organization. There are traces of election for king by a tribal assembly called ‘Samiti’.

Assemblies

• Important tribal Assemblies were Sabha, Samiti. Vidhata and Gana. They exercised deliverative, military and religious function.
• The two most important Assemblies were Sabha and Samiti. Samiti was seneral Aassembly and less exclusive than Sabha.
• Women attended ‘Sabha’ and ‘Vidhata’ in Rig Vedic times.

Administrative officers

• Purohita-Chief priest, most important functionaries.
• Senani-The leader of the army.
• Vrajapati-Officer who enjoyed authority over pasture ground.
• Kulapas-Head of families led by Vrajapati.
• Gramini-Head of fighting hordes under Vrajapati, later on became the head of village.
• There was no officer for tax collection, nor we do hear of any officer for administering justice.
• Spies called ‘spasa’s were employed to watch over unsocial activities like theft and burglary.
• The chief received from people voluntary offering called ‘Bali’. Presents and sports of war were distributed in some vedic assemblies.

Material life (economy)

• The Rig Vedic Aryans were semi-nomadic people with mixed pastoral and agricultural economy in which catle rearing played a predominant role.
• The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of agricultural ploughshare is mentioned in early part of Rig Veda and this was possibly made up of wood.
• They were acquainted with sowing, harvesting, threshing and knew about different seasons.
• Their staple cro was ‘yava’ (barley).
• However, Rig Vedic people were predominantly pastoral people. The cow seems to be most important form of wealth. There are so many references to cow in Rig Veda (176 times - ‘Gav’).
• Most of their wars were fought for cow. The term for war in Rig Veda is ‘Gavishthi’ or search for wars.
• Duhitri - A word for daughter which literarly meant milker of cow.
• Aghanya -Cow not to be killed but this may only imply its economic importance.
• Goghana -guests were also called Goghana as beef was offered to them.
• The gift made to priest usually consists of cows and women slaves and never of land.
• Rig Veda mentions about many artisans such as carpenter, chariot maker, weaver, leather worker, potter etc. which confirms about practice of all crafts.
• The term ‘Ayas’ used for copper or bronze shows metal-work was known.
• Rig Vedic Aryans were not traders because we do not get any clear evidence of trade activities. The Vedic people were also not acquainted with sea or ocean because the word ‘Samudra’ mentioned in Rig Veda maintly denotes collection of water.

Rig vedic society

• Based on kinship the early Aryan society was essentially tribal and egalitarian.
• People owe their primary loyalty to the tribe which was called Jana (275 times in Rig Veda).
• Another important term which stands for tribe in Rig Veda is ‘Vis’ (170 times) The most numerous Varna of Vaishya arose out of vis.
• The ‘Vis’ was divided into Gramma, a smaller tribal unit meant for fighting.
• The term for family ‘Kula’ is mentioned rarely in Rig Veda. Family was rather indicated with the term ‘Griha’.
• The family was a large jointed unit and it was essentially patriarchal.
• The birth of the son was desired. People prayed for brave sons to fight wars.
• In Rig Veda no desire is expressed for daughter.
• The position of women was respectable. There are no examples of child marriage and the marriageable age in Rig Veda seems to have been 16 to 17 years.
• Women could attend assemblies and could take part in sacrifice along with their husband.
• We also get evidence of widow remarriage and practice of Niyoga (lerivate) in which a childless widow would co-habit with her brother-in-law until the birth of a son.
• The institution of marriage was established. However, we have some indications of polyandry.

Social divisions

• The word ‘Varna’ used for colour gave the origin of the four classes from the contact of Aryans of fair complexion with the indigenous people of dark complexion.
• The factor which contributed most to the creation of social division was the conquest of indigineous inhabitants by the Aryans.
• Quadruple division of society made its formal appearance only at one place in X Mandal of Rig Veda i.e. Purushsukta hymn.
• Slaves were given as a gift to the priests. They  were mainly women slaves employed for domestic purposes.
• During this period slaves were not used directly in agriculture or other production activities.

Rig vedic religion

• The dominant mode of worshipping the gods was through the recitation of prayers and offering of sacrifies.
• The Rig Vedic people did not worshipping the gods was through the recitation of prayers and offering of sacrifices.
• The Rig Vedic people did not worship god for their spritual upliftment or for ending the misery of existence. They mainly asked for praja, pashu, food, wealth, health etc.
• An important charecteristic of Vedic mythology is the pre-dominance of male diety. Female diety occupied subordinate position.

Rigvedic gods

Indra

• Most important Rig Vedic deity in called Purandhar or destroyer of forts.
• 250 hymns devoted to him.
• Indra played the role of warlord and weather god.
• He was rain god (prajanya) and thought to be responsible for causing rainfall.
• He was associated with storm and thunder and like Zeus and Thor his hand bore the thunderbolt (Vajra) with which he destroys his enemies.
• He was rowdy, amoral deity, fond of feast and drinking.

Agni

• The second positon is held by Agni to whom 200 hyms are devoted.
• he acts as intermediary between god and men.
• He dwelt in heaven, in the form of lightning and on earth in many forms.
• He was the god of purity.
• He was the god of priest for he dwelt with him at fire sacrifice.
• He was the god of home for he dwelt in domestic hearth.

Varuna

• The third position is occupied by Varuna who personified water.
• He is the lord of ocean and floods.
• He was supposed to uphold the natural order ‘Rita’, and whatever happened in the world was thought to be reflection of his desires.
• He was the foremost king. A mighty emperor sitting in a great palace in the heaven often surrounded by gods.
• Among the Aryan gods, Varuna was ethically the highest.
• His worship given the earliest sign of Bhakti.

Soma

• Was considered to be god of plant and an intoxicating drink is named after him.
• Indians connected the growth of the plant with the moon with which the soma, the king of plant was later identified.
• All hymns in his honour are placed in the IX Mandal of Rig Veda.
• he is special god of Brahamans who referred to him as their king or patron deity.

Yama

• Lord of Dead was a sort of Adam, the first man to die who because guardian of the world of the fathers.

Rudra (the howler)

• He resembled the Greek god, Appolo.
• Like Indra he is also associated with storm.
• He was guardian of healing herb.

Demi gods

• Maruts-personified storm.
• Mitra-Solar deities.
• Ribhus-Gnomers who worked in Metal.
• Gandharva-Divine Musician.
• Apsaras-Mistress of god.
• Vishvadevas-Intermediary deity

Female diety

• Usha-Goddess of dawn.
• Aditi-Mother of Gods.
• Prithivi -Earth goddess.
• Aryani-Forest goddess
• Sarasvati-River deity.

• This age is also called Painted Grey Ware (PGW) phase.
• The history of this period is based on later Vedic texts which include Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, Brahmanas, Aryankas and Upanishads.
• During the later Vedic phase the Aryans have thoroughly subdued the fertile plains watered by Yamuna, upper Ganga and Sadnira. They also crossed Vindhyas and established their kingdome in Deccan to the north of Godawri.

Political organization

• In later vedic times popular assemblies lost importance and royal power increased at their cost.
• The ‘Vidhata’ completely disappeared. The Sabha and Samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed and they came to be dominated by chiefs and rich nobles.
• Women were not longer permitted to site in ‘Sabha’ and in was not dominated by nobles and brahamanas.
• The formation of wider kingdom made the king more powerful. Tribal authority tended to become territorial.
• The term ‘Rastra’ which indicates `territory’ first appears in this period.
• Traces of election appear in later vedic texts. The one who was considered best in physical and other qualities was elected Raja. he received voluntary presents called ‘Bali’ from his ordinary kins men or ‘vis’.
• Kingship was made hereditary and post generally went to eldest son.
• King’s influence was strengthened by rituals like:
• (1)  Rajsuya yajna – was the royal consecration ceremony which was to confer supreme power on king.
• (2)  Vajapeya  - drink of strength, was a charot race in which royal chariot was made to win against kinsmen.The ritual lasted for 17 days and was believed not only to restore the strength of middle aged king but to elevate him from Raja to Samrat
• Asvamedha – was a horse sacrifice which lasted for 3 days.?It was meant to claim unquestionable control over the areas in which royal horse roamed freely. Kings were known with different names in different region.
• Eastern King-Samrat
• Western King-Suvrat
• North King-Virat
• Southern King-Bhoja

Later vedic economy

• In eastern U.P. and Videha the earliest Iron implement belongs to 700 B.C. The word Shyama or Krishna, Ayas was used for Iron.
• Agriculture was the main source of livelihood of later vedic people. Ploughing was done with the help of wooden ploughshare.
• The Shatapatha Brahamana speaks at length about ploughing rituals.
• During later vedic period rice and wheat became the chief crops. For the first time vedic people came to be acquainted with rice in doab, it is called Virhi in vedic text and its remains have been discovered from Hastinapur belonging to 800 B.C.
• The later vedic period saw the rise of diverse crafts and arts.
• Weaving was confined to women but was practiced on large scale. Leatherwork, pottery and carpentery made a great progress.
• The latter vedic people were acquainted with four types of pottery:Black and Red ware, Black Slipped ware, Plain Grey ware
• Red ware  - was the most popular.
• However the most distinctive pottery of later vedic period was Painted Grey Ware.
• Various painted grey ware sites have been discovered in western U.P. and Delhi (Kuru – Parchola area) in Punjab and Haryana (Madra areas) and in Rajathan (Matasya area).
• Only few sites such as Hastinapur, Noh and Atranjikhera have been excavated.
• The Term ‘Nagara’ for cities is for first time mentioned in later vedic text, but only a faint beginning of town towards the end of later vedic period can be noticed.
• The Shatapata Brahama refers to sea (Arabian and Indian Ocean) and sea voyages.
• Shatapata Brahamana speaks first of money leading.

Social organization

• The later vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras.

Gotra

• The institution of gotra appeared in later vedic times.
• The original meaning of ‘gotra’ is cowshed or a herd of cow appeared in Rig Vedia.
• In Atharva Veda the word first appears meaning a clan.
• Gotra signified descent from a common ancestor. The were eight in numbers Kasyapa, Vasishta, Bhrigu, Gautam, Bharadwaj, Attri, Vishvamitra and Agastya.
• People began to gratice gotra exogamy.

Ashramas

• In post vedic times we hear of Ashramas that of Brahmachari or student, Grihsta or Householder, Vanaprastha or hermit, and Sanyasi or ascetic who completely renounced the wordly life.
• The Chhandogya Upanishad refers to first three ashramas – recluse is not given.
• The earliest clear reference to four Ashramas that of a student, householder, forest hermit and recluse is found in Jabala Upanishad.

Later vedic religion

• The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods Indra and Agni lost their former importance
• Prajapati, the creator god came to occupy the supreme position in later vedic pantheon.
• Rudra, the god of animals became more important and Vishnu came to be conceived as preserved and protector of people.
• Signs of idolatory appeared in later vedic period.
• As society came to be divided into social classes, some of the social order came to have their own duties. ‘Pushan’ who was supposed to look after cattle, came to be regarded as god of sudras.
• People worshipped god for the fulfillment of material desires. Prayers continued to be rectited but sacrifices became far more important and assumed bother public and domestic character.
• Towards the end of Vedic period began a strong reaction against a priestly domination, cults and rituals in lands of Panchalas and Videha where Upanishads were compiled in 600 B.C.
• The Upanishads criticized the rituals and laid stress on value of right belief and knowledge.
• They emphasized that knowledge of self (Atman) should be acquired and relation of Atman with Brahma (God) should be properly understood.
• Deeds of one life affected the next. This gave the theory of Karma.
• The later vedic period saw certain changes:
• Wars were fought not only for cow but also for territory.
• The society because agricultural, from a pastoral society of early Rig Vedic age.
• The tribal society broke up into a varna-divided society.
• No regular system of taxes and no professional army.
• Chiefs grew at the expense of tribal peasantry and handsomely awarded the priest who supported their patrons against the common people called Vaishyas.

• The word ‘veda’ is derived from Sanskrit root ‘Vid’ meaning ‘to know’ or knowledge par excellence.
• Vedic texts are Shruti (heard) which is distinct from Smriti (Remembrance).
• The four Vedas, brahamanas, Aryankas and Upanishads-all are Sruti.
• The Veda consists of Mantras,
• Brahmanas, Aryankas and Upanishads. Martres are distributed into Samhita-Rigveda,Samveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.
• Rigveda – it is foundation of all vedic literature, consists mainly of lyrics in prasise of different gods mainly Indra, Varuna and Agni.
• Contains 1028 Suktas, is divided into 10 Mandals or books.
• II to VII books are earliest and are also called family books. they are attributed to Gristamada Visvamitra, Vasudeva, Attri, Bhardwaj, Vashista, Kanva and Angiras.
• mandal IX is dedicated exclusively to Soma.
• The Tenth Mandal contains the famous Purushsukta hymn that explains the origin of four Varnas.
• The hymn were recited by priests styled as Hotris.
• Gayatric Mantra forms the most sacred hymn of Rig Veda.
• Samveda – 1603 verses – derived its roots from ‘Saman’ i.e. melody.
• The verses of Rigveda were given tune for the purpose of singing.
• These songs were meant to be sung by a special class of priests called ‘udgatri’.
• Yajur Veda (Book of sacrificial prayers).
• Written in prose, it deals with procedure for performance of sacrifices and contains rituals as well as hymns.
• Its verses were recited by ‘Adhasya’ priest of ‘Advaryu’.
• Shayama Yajurveda – it is older and contains commentaries in prose in addition to text.
• Sukla Yajurveda – contains instructions only.
• Atharva Veda (Book of Magical Formula)
• It contains charms and spells to ward off evil and disease.
• It s contents throw light on practices of non-Aryans.

Brahamanas

• They marked the transistion from vedic to later Brahmanical order.
• They are the prose commentaries on vedic hymns.
• Basically they are appendices to the Vedas which deal with rules of sacrifice and contain ritualistic formulae for respective Vedas and priest.

Aryankas

• They are final parts of the Brahmanas.
• The explain metaphysics and symbolism of sacrifice.
• Aranyakas meaning forest book were taught in forest due to their magical powers.

Upanishad

• Derived from word upanish meaning (to site down near some one) are commentaries appended to Aranytakas and deals mainly with philosophy.
• There are 108 upanishads compiled between 800-500 B.C.
• They are anti-ritualistic and define doctrine of Karma, Atman (Soul) and god (Brahma).
• They given valuable information for the reign of king Prakshit to Bimbisar
• Upvedas : Four in number:

Shruti literature : Vedangas

• In order tounderstand the vedic text it was necessary to learn the Vedangas or the limb of Vedas. These are treatise on science and arts. They are
• (1)  SHIKSHA (Phonetics)
• (2)  KALPA (Ritual)
• (3)  VYAKARANA (Grammar)
• (4)  CHHAND (Metrics)
• (5)  NIRUKTA (Etymology)
• (6)  JYOTISHA) (Astronomy)
• Yaska’s Nirukta (5th century B.C.) is the oldest Indian linguistic text.
• Panini wrote Astadhayayi (4th Century B.C.) on Vyakaran.

Epics

• The two epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata) and major puranas seems to have been finally compiled by circa A.D. 400.
• Of the epics the Mahabharata attributed to Vyasa is older in age and possibly reflects the state of affairs from 10th century B.C. to 4th century A.D.
• Originally Mahabharata consisted of 8800 verses and was called ‘Jayasamhita’ or collection dealing with victory. These were raised to 24000 and came to be known as Bharata. The final compilation brought the verses to 100,000 which came to be known as Mahabharata or Satshri Samhita.
• The Ramayana of Valmiki originally consisted of 600 verses which were raised to 12000 and finally to 24,000.
• The Ramayana composistion started in 5th century B.C. since then it passed through five stages and fifth stage seems to be as late as 12th century A.D.

Puranas

• These are termed as real histories of Ancient India because they contain the most systematic record of Indian historical tradition.
• Puranas are eighteen in number and there are also up-puranas – Vishnu, Vayu, Brahma, Matsya and Bhagwata are of much historical importance

Ritual literature

• Kalpa Sutra is divided into three sections in post-vedic times:
• (i)   Srauta Sutras – dealing with large public sacrifices, provided for several pompous royal coronation ceremony.
• (ii)  Ghriya Sutras – deals with domestic rituals connected with birth, naming, marriage etc.
• (iii) Sulva Sutras – prescribes varius kinds of measurement for the construction of sacrificial altars.

Six System of Philosophy : Sad Darshan

• The six Darshans were written between the 6th century and at the time of Ashoka. These are given in the form of Sutras or aphorisms. These are as follows.

• (Purva) Mimansa: Sought to explain and revive Vedas concerned with ritual. No necessity of benavolent or active God. The earliest work of this school is said to be the Sutras of Jaimini (C. 6th Century B.C.), the greatest of the early ‘mimamsa’ scholars was Shabarsvamin who flourished in the 6th century A.D.
• Vaisheshika: It is older then “Nayaya. Founder was Uluka Kanada. The greatest of his commentators, Prashashtappad, perhaps lived in the sixth century.
• Yoga: The basic text goes back to the Yoga Sutra of PatanJali (2nd century B.C.). The present form is attributed to Vyas, who lived seven centuries later.
• Nyaya: Founder was Akshapada Gautam (early centuries of Christian era). Pakshilasvamin Vatsyayan, its main expositor, may be referred to the fourth century A.D. It gives emphasis on Tarka or logic, which the basis of all studies. Akshapader literally means “the eye-footed”, i.e., the eyes directed on the foot.
• Sankhaya: Authored by Kapila, who lived about 580 B.C. Mentioned in Bhagavat, Gita, and occurring in a primitive form in the Upanishads. Its fundamental principle is the dualism of Purusha and Prakriti. Prakriti is developed by the Kinds of Gunas, viz., saltva (source of good and happiness), Raias (source of good and happiness), Rajas (source of activity and pain) Tamas (source of activity and pain) Tamas (source of ignorance, sloth and apathy). World is not real. Prakriti etemal. Sankhya does not believe in the existence of God. Prakriti and Purush-Independent of God.
• Uttara Mimansa (also called Vedanta): BadrayanA is said to have formulated its main tenets in the early Christian centuries. Gaudapada, an important thinker of this school lived around the middle of the sixth century A.D. Vedanta contains 555-Sutras
• divided into four chapters.