Stone Age

On the basis of the scientific study, geologists fix age of the earth as 4,600 million years. The fossils of the earliest humans found in Africa were about 4.2 million years old. The earliest human beings were shorter in height and had a smaller brain. About 42-lakhs years ago, Human being evolves and the present form reached about 50,000 years ago. The fossils found in Africa, China, Java, Sumatra, and southern Europe portray the various stages and periods of human development. In India, the only hominid fossil found from ‘Hathnaura’ in the Narmada Valley.

Earliest Palaeolithic Tools

• The stage of human development started at the time when people begin the use of tools for their aid. It was the time that laid the foundation of science and the uses of machines.
• About 2.6 million years ago, human beings started the regular use of tools in east Africa.
• In Indonesia, several hominid fossils have recently been dated between 1.8 and 1.6 million years.
• In China, the early stone tools are associated with human fossils dated between 1.7 and 1.9 million years.
• In India, no human fossils have been found associated with Stone Age tools.
• The various strata of the Sivalik hills containing stone tools have been dated between 2 to 1.2 million years.
• The archaeological site of Bori in Pune district of Maharashtra is about 1.38 million years old. It gives the scientific record for the early stone tools in India.
• The early human settlement in India is contemporary to the Asian countries, but it is of the later period than that in the African region.

Palaeolithic Cultures

• Based on tool technology, the Palaeolithic Age in India is divided into the following three phases
  1) Lower Palaeolithic Hand-axe and cleaver industries;
  2) Middle Palaeolithic Tools made on flakes; and
  3) Upper Palaeolithic Tools made on flakes and blades.

Lower Palaeolithic Culture

• The time period of Lower Palaeolithic culture was marked between 600,000 and 60,000 B.C.
• The main tool types of this era were hand axes and cleavers, along with chopper-chopping tools. These were made on cores as well as flakes.
• The raw materials used for making the stone tools were largely of different kinds of stones, including quartzite, chert, and sometimes even quartz and basalt, etc.
• Following are the major types of sites of the Lower Palaeolithic culture −
  1) Habitation sites (either under rock-shelters or in the open);
  2) Factory sites associated with sources of raw materials;
  3) Sites that combine elements of both these functions; and
  4) Open-air sites (any of the above categories).
• The Lower Palaeolithic tools have been abundantly found throughout the Indian subcontinent, except the plains of the Indus, Saraswati, Brahmaputra, and Ganga where raw material in the form of stone is not available.
• Following are the important sites of Lower Palaeolithic cultures −
  1) Pahalgam in Kashmir,
  2) Belan valley in Allahabad district (Uttar Pradesh),
  3) Bhimbetka and Adamgarh in Hoshangabad district (Madhya Pradesh),
  4) 16 R and Singi Talav in Nagaur district (Rajasthan),
  5) Nevasa in Ahmadnagar district (Maharashtra),
  6) Hunsgi in Gulburga district (in Kanlataka), and
  7) Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu).
• Some other sites also have been found in −
  1) Shivalik range of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Punjab;
  2) Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh;
  3) Berach basin and the hilly area of Rajasthan; and
  4) Narmada and Sone valleys in Madhya Pradesh;
  5) Malprabha and Ghatprabha basins in Karnataka;
  6) Chhota Nagpur plateau and several areas of Maharashtra;
  7) Some areas near Chennai in Tamil Nadu; and
  8) Some areas of Orissa, West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh.

Middle Paleolithic Culture

• The period between 150,000 B.C. and 40,000 B.C. is marked as the middle Palaeolithic culture.
• The tools of middle Palaeolithic were characterized as −
  1) The flake tools those are made on flakes obtained by striking them out from pebbles or cobbles.
  2) These tool types include small and medium-sized hand-axes, cleavers, and various kinds of scrapers, borers, and knives.
• The Middle Palaeolithic tools were found in Central India, Deccan, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Orissa.
• The most important sites of Middle Palaeolithic period were −
  1) Bhimbetka
  2) Nevasa
  2) Pushkar
  3) Rohiri hills of upper Sind
  4) Samnapur on Narmada

Upper Palaeolithic Culture

• The period between 9,000 and 8,000 B.C. is marked as Upper Palaeolithic culture.
• The tools of Upper Palaeolithic culture were characterized by basic technological innovation in the method of producing parallel sided blades from a carefully prepared core and in the development of the composite tools.
• The main tool types of Palaeolithic period were −
  Scrapers
  Points
  Awls
  Burins
  Borers
  Knives etc.
• During the Upper Palaeolithic period, the concept of composite tools developed.
• The most noteworthy discovery of the Upper Palaeolithic period is the rubble-made platforms and the Mother Goddess who was worshiped as female principle or Sakti in the countryside.
• The rubble platform with its unique stone was made by a group of final upper Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers. A piece of natural stone in the center of the platform is found on the top of the Kaimur escarpment.
• The upper Palaeolithic tools were found in −
  Rajasthan,
  Central and Western India,
  Parts of the Ganga and Belan valleys,
  Gujarat,
  Andhra Pradesh, and
  Karnataka.
• The various sites in Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra were of the upper Palaeolithic period lasted from about 45,000 to 10,000 B.C.

Harappan Civilization

Till 1920, the relics of the civilization were found only in the Indus valley region; therefore, it was known as the Indus civilization. In 1920-21, the Harappan civilization was discovered in the excavations by D. R. Salini (at Harappa) and by R. D. Banerjee (at Mohenjo Daro). The remains of the civilization were first noticed at Harappa, therefore it is also known as the Harappan civilization.

Geographical Facts

Following are the important geographical facts of distribution of Harappan civilization −

• The 1,400 settlements of this civilization discovered so far are distributed over a very wide geographical area covering almost 1,600 km (east to west) and 1,400 km (north to south).
• Harappan civilization extent starts from −
  1). Sutkagendor (Baluchistan) in the west to Alamgirpur (Meerut, Uttar Pradesh) in the east and
  2) Manda (Akhnoor District, Jammu and Kashmir) in the north to Daimabad (Ahmadnagar District, Maharashtra) in the south.
• About 1,400 settlements of the Harappan culture are known from different parts of India. About 925 settlements sites are now in India and 475 are in Pakistan.
• The total geographical stretch of Harappan civilization is about 1,250,000 sq. km which is more than 20 times of the area of Egyptian and more than 12 times of the combined area of Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations.
• Mostly, the Harappan settlements were located on river banks of which −
  1) Only 40 settlements were located on the Indus and its tributaries;
  2) As many as 1,100 (80%) settlements were located on the vast plain between the Indus and the Ganga, comprising mainly the Saraswati river system (which no more exist);
  3) About 250 settlements were found in India beyond the Saraswati River system; a number of them were located in Gujarat, and a few in Maharashtra.
  4) The distribution pattern of settlements shows that the focus of Harappan civilization was not the Indus, but the Saraswati River and its tributaries, which flowed between the Indus and the Ganga. Therefore, few researchers prefer to call it as Saraswati civilization or Indus-Saraswati civilization
• The settlements belonging to this civilization can be classified as
  1) Small villages (which were up to 10 hectares),
  2) Larger towns and small cities (10 to 50 hectares).
  3) Large cities settlements such as −
  --> Mohenjo Daro (+250 hectares),
  --> Harappa (+150 hectares),
  --> Ganawariwala (+80 hectares),
  --> Rakhigarhi (+80 hectares),
  --> Kalibangan (+100 hectares), and
  --> Dholavira (+100 hectares).

• Large cities were surrounded by vast agricultural lands, rivers, and forest that were inhabited by scattered farming and pastoral communities and bands of hunters and food-gatherers.
• Excavations at the sites of Mohenjo Daro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal, Surkotada, Dholavira, etc. have given us a fair idea about the various aspects such as town planning, economy, technology, religion, etc. of this civilization.

Harappan Town Planning

The orientation of streets and buildings, according to the cardinal directions east-west, and north-south was the distinguishing factor of the Indus-Saraswati cities.Harappan city sites, including Mohenjo Daro, Harappa, Kalibangan, and Surkotada were having large gateways at various entry points of the city. These gateways are seen even in the inner fortification areas also. At Dholavira, a fallen signboard was found close to the main gateway. It is a large inscription having ten symbols each measuring approximately 37 cm high and 25 to 27 cm wide proclaimed some name or title.

Materials Used in Buildings

• Most settlements were situated in the alluvial plains where the most common building materials were mud-bricks and kiln-fired-bricks, wood and reeds.
• In the foothills and on the Islands of Kutch and in Saurashtra, dressed stone replaced bricks (due to an abundance of stone).
• The sizes of bricks have been found identical proportions 1:2:4, that the width is double the thickness and the length four times, the thickness.
• Doors and windows were made up of wood and mats.
• Floors of houses were generally hard-packed earth that was often plastered.
• Drains and bathing areas were made with baked bricks or stone.
• Roofs were probably made of wooden beams covered with reeds and packed clay.

Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro

• The Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro is the most remarkable feature of any Harappan site.
• The Great Bath was a brick structure, which measured 12 m by 7 m and is nearly 3 m deep from the surrounding pavement.
• Water was evidently supplied by 3 large well placed in an adjacent room.
• Surrounding the bath, there were porticos and sets of rooms, while a stairway led to an upper storey.
• The bath was linked with some sort of ritual bathing, which was very common in Indian life right from the ancient times to till date.
• Immediately to the west of the Great Bath (at Mohenjo Daro) was a group of 27 blocks of brickwork crisscrossed by narrow lanes. This structure measures 50 m. east-west and 27 m. north-south. These structures have been identified as granaries, which were used for storing grains. Similar structures have been also found at Harappa, Kalibangan, and Lothal.
• The dockyard found at Lothal was another important structure. It was a large structure measuring 223 m. in length, 35 m. in width and 8 m. in depth, provided with an inlet channel (12.30 m. wide) in the eastern wall and a spillway.
• The inlet channel was connected to a river. By its side, it was 240 m. long and 21.6 m wide wharf. This was a dockyard where ships and boats used to come for loading and unloading of trading goods.
• Lothal was a major trading center of the Harappan civilization.

Streets and Drains

• The most outstanding features of the Harappan civilization were the streets and side lanes equipped with drains system.
• The streets cut each other on the right angles and the width of these streets was in a set ratio.
• No encroachment on the streets was to be seen.
• Even smaller towns and villages had impressive drainage systems. This indicates that people had a great civic sense of sanitation and care for health and hygiene.
• Burnt bricks were used to make drains. Small drains connected with bathing platforms and latrines of private houses were joined with the medium sized drains in the side streets then these drains ran into larger sewers in the main streets which were covered with bricks or dressed stone blocks.

Harappan Culture

Arts

• A large variety of objects such as seals, stone statues, terracotta, etc. is superb examples of the art activities.
• A Yogi from Mohenjo Daro and two small figurines from Harappa are the most outstanding pieces of art.
• A dancing girl statue of about 11.5 cm. in height made up of bronzes was found from Mohenjo Daro.
• Daimabad bronze animals’ workmanship, most likely belong to Harappan period.
• The red sandstone torso found at Harappa is made up of detachable limbs and head.
• The grey stone torso perhaps illustrates a dancing figure. Both these are so realistic that none would believe that they belong to the Harappan period.
• Harappan people produced a large number of terracotta figurines, which were handmade. The figurines include humans, animals, birds, and monkey.
• Following are the Specimen of Arts from the Harappan Civilization −
  Bronze statue (Dancing Girl);
  Terracotta Bulls;
  Terracotta Female Figurine;
  ead of a Yogi; and
  Painted Jar dogs, sheep, and cattle
• The most artistic depictions are the figures of humped bull. Figurines of both humped and humpless bulls are found in excavations
• A painting was found only on pottery. Unfortunately, no wall paintings, even if there were any, have survived.

Script

• The language of Harappan is still unknown. But some scholars connect it to the Dravidian languages and others to Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit.
• There are nearly 400 specimens of Harappan signs on seals and other materials such as copper tablets, axes, and pottery. Most of the inscriptions on seals are small, a group of few letters.
• The Harappa script has 400 to 500 signs and it is generally agreed that it is not an alphabetic form of writing.

Agriculture

• Agriculture was generally practiced along the river banks most of which were flooded during the summer and monsoons. The flood deposited every year fresh alluvial silt, which is highly productive and for which no major furrowing and certainly no manures and irrigation were required.
• The cultivated field excavated at Kalibangan shows crisscross furrow marks indicating that two crops were grown simultaneously. This method is followed even today in the Rajasthan, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh.
• The granaries found at Harappan cities suggest that cereals were produced in such a large quantities. They also kept enough reserve to face any future emergency.
• The principal cereals were wheat and barley. Rice was also known and was a favored grain. Remains of rice have been found from Gujarat and Haryana areas.
• Six varieties of millets including ragi, kodon, sanwa, and jowar were cultivated, along with peas and beans.
• Fragments of cotton cloth found at Mohenjo Daro and other sites show that cotton was also grown.
• Cotton has been found at Mehrgarh at least 2,000 years before the mature phase of the Civilization. This is the oldest evidence of cotton in the world.
• Other major crops include dates, varieties of legumes, sesame, and mustard
• Wooden plough with a copper or wooden ploughshare was used for tilling fields.
• Terracotta models of the plough have been found at Mohenjo Daro and Banawali.
• Harvesting of crops would have been done with copper sickles as well as stone blades hafted in wood.
• Animals like sheep, goat, humped bull, buffalo, elephant, etc. have been depicted on the seals. This shows that the range of animals domesticated by the Harappan people was quite large.
• Skeletal remains of several animals like sheep, goat, bull, buffalo, elephant, camel, pig, dog, and cat etc. have been found in excavations.
• Wild animals were hunted for the food. Bones of animals like spotted deer, sambhar deer, hog deer, wild pig, etc. found in the excavation prove it. Besides, several types of birds as well as fishes, were also hunted for food.
• Bones of horses have been reported from Lothal, Surkotada, Kalibangan, and several other sites.
• Terracotta figurines of the horse have been found at Nausharo and Lothal. But this animal is not depicted on seals.

Vedic Civilization

Vedic literature is the most significant source of information about the Vedic civilization. The Vedic literature consists of three successive classes of literary creations, namely −

• Vedas
• Brahmanas
• Aranyakas and Upanishads

1. Vedas

• Veda means "knowledge". The Vedas formed the earliest segment of Vedic literature.
• The Vedic literature had been evolved in the course of many centuries and was handed down from generation to generation by the word of mouth.
• The Vedas are the collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies, and sacrificial formulae.
• Vedas are four in number, namely −
  -->Rig Veda − It is the oldest Veda. It is a collection of hymns.
  -->Samveda − it is a collection of songs, which are mostly taken from Rig Veda.
  -->Yajurveda − It is a collection of sacrificial formulae
  -->Atharvanaveda − it is a collection of spells and charms.

2. Brahmanas

• The Brahmanas are prose texts. It describes about the meaning of Vedic hymns, their applications, and stories of their origins in details. Besides, it also explains the details about rituals and philosophies.

3. Aranyakas and Upanishads

• Aranyakas and Upanishads exemplify philosophical meditations of the hermits and ascetics on soul, god, world, etc. These are partly included in the Brahmanas or attached, and partly exist as separate works.
• They, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the Upanishads are attached to one or the other of the four Vedas.
• Compositions of the hymns are credited to Hindu Rishis (monks) of divine origin.
• The Vedas are called ‘apaurusheya’ (not created by man) and ‘nitya’ (existing in all eternity) while the Rishis are known as inspired seers who received the mantras from the Supreme deity.

Age of RigVeda

• The origin of the earth goes back to about 4,600 million years and the origin of humans themselves goes back to about 4.2 million years (ago).
• Max Muller gives arbitrarily the date of composition of Rig Veda to be around 1,200 to 1,000 B.C.
• W. D. Whitney negated and criticized Muller for using totally arbitrary, unscientific, and un-academic method in assigning the dates.
• On the analogy of the language of Avesta, some scholars opined that the date of Rig Veda may be 1,000 B.C.
• Some of the Vedic gods namely Indra, Varuna, Mitra, and the two Nasatyas were mentioned in Boghaz-Koi (Asia Minor) inscription of 1,400 B.C., which proves that Rig Veda must have come into existence much before the date described by some of the foreigner scholars.
• The Boghaz-Koi inscription records a treaty between the Hittite and the Mitanni Kings and the gods (mentioned in the above point) were cited as witnesses to this treaty. Even today, exactly in the same way, the oath is taken in the courts and on an assumption of a public office (in the name of god).
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak, on astronomical grounds, dated Rig Veda to 6,000 B.C.
• Harmon Jacobi held that Vedic civilization flourished between 4,500 B.C. and 2,500 B.C. and the Samhitas were composed in the latter half of the period.
• Famous Sanskritist, Winternitz felt that the Rig Veda was probably composed in the third millennium B.C.
• R. K. Mukerjee suggested that "on a modest computation, we should come to 2,500 B.C. as the time of Rig Veda".
• G. C. Pande also favors a date of 3,000 B.C. or even earlier.

Rig Vedic Geography

• Rig Vedic people called themselves ‘Aryans’. They had detailed knowledge of the geographical area in which they lived. Name and location and pattern of geographical features such as rivers and mountains mentioned in Rig-Veda suggest location of the regions of the geographical area of their habitat.
• The Nadi-sukta hymn of the Rig Veda mentions 21 rivers, which include the Ganga in the east and the Kubha (Kabul) in the west.
• The pattern of rivers is given in a definite order from the east to west i.e. from the Ganga in the east to the Kubul in the west. The rivers like Yamuna, Saraswati, Sutlej, Ravi, Jhelum, and Indus are situated between Ganga and Kabul.
• The mountain namely the Himalayas and the Mujavant (as mentioned in the Veda) are located in the north.
• The Ocean i.e. ‘Samudra’ is mentioned in connection with rivers Sindhu and the river Saraswati had been falling into the ocean. Ocean has been also mentioned in the context of foreign trade.
• The geography of Rig Vedic period covers present-day western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, the whole of Pakistan, and the south of Afghanistan.
• The battle of ten kings, mentioned in the Rig Veda, gives names of ten kings who participated in a war against Sudas who was Bharata king of Tritsus family. It illustrates that the territory known to Vedic people was divided into a number of states-republics and monarchical (kingdoms).
• The battle was fought on the bank of Parushani (Ravi) river and Sudas emerged as victorious.
• ‘Bharatvarsha’ was the name used for the whole country. It was given by the most important people of the Rig Veda. They were ‘Bharatas’ who were settled in the region between the rivers Saraswati and Yamuna.
• The Rig Veda also gives the location of other people, such as Purus in the region of Kurukshetra; the Tritsus east of Ravi; the Alinas, the Pakhtas, the Bhalanas and the Sibis west of Indus (up to Kabul river) and so on.

Vedic Society

Society

• Occupation of individuals was the basis of classification of a society in the Rig Vedic period.
• It was divided into four varnas, namely
  -->Brahmanas (teacher and priests);
  -->Kshatriya (rulers and administrators);
  -->Vaisya (farmers, merchants, and bankers); and
  -->Sudra (artisan and laborers)

• There was complete freedom and mobility for the adoption of a profession.
• Trades and occupations did not assume a hereditary character in the society (till now).

Salient Features of Vedic Society

• The family was the smallest unit of a society. It was primarily monogamous and Patriarchal.
• Child marriage was not in fashion.
• There was freedom of choice in marriage.
• A widow could marry the younger brother of her deceased husband.
• The wife was a partner of the husband in all religious and social ceremonies.
• The father's property was inherited by son.
• The daughter could inherit it only if she was the only child of her parents.
• Right to property was known in moveable things like cattle, horse, gold, and ornament and so also in immoveable property like land and house.

Education

• The teacher was given great respect.
• The school was in the home of the teacher where he taught the particular sacred texts.
• The texts were in the first instance learnt by pupils repeating the words taught by their teacher.
• A great importance was attached to enunciation and pronunciation.
• Oral learning was the method of training.
• Students were given intense training and learning to memorize and preserve the huge mass of Vedic literature.

Food and Drinks

• The important part of the diet was milk and its products like curd, butter, and ghee. Grains were cooked with milk (kshira-pakamodanam).
• Chappati (bread) of wheat and barley was eaten mixed with ghee.
• People used to eat the meat of birds, wild animals (like boar, antelopes, and buffalo), and fish.
• The meat of animals such as sheep, goat, and buffalo etc., which were sacrificed on ceremonial occasions, was also eaten.
• The cow was mentioned as aghnya i.e. not to be killed. The Vedas prescribe a penalty of death or expulsion from the kingdom to those who kill or injure cows.
• Sura and Soma i.e. alcoholic drinks were also consumed, though their consumption had been condemned

Economic Life

• Agriculture, cattle rearing, and trade and commerce were the main economic activity of the Rig Vedic people.
• People had domestic animals like cows, sheep, goats, asses, dogs, buffalos etc.
• Oxen were used for ploughing and drawing carts and horses for drawing the chariots.
• The plough was drawn by the oxen at times in a team of six, eight, or even twelve.
• The grains were harvested with sickles.
• Manure was used for high yield; irrigation was also practiced.
• Excess of rains and drought is mentioned as damaging the crops.
• The grains are collectively called ‘Yava’ and ‘Dhanya.’
• Some other occupations were pottery-making, weaving, carpentry, metal working, leather-working, etc.
• Initially, copper was the only metal that was used and the general term 'ayas' had been used for this. In a later period, terms like ‘lohit ayas’ and ‘syam ayas’ were used for copper and iron respectively.
• The trade and traders (vanik) were also known in the Rig Vedic era.
• The practices of exchange of goods (Barter Economy) were in trend. It has been found that ten cows were quoted as the price for an image of Indra.
• The use of money can be traced in the mention of a gift of 100 nishkas.
• Money-lending was also popular. It is mentioned that an eighth or a sixteenth part of one being paid either as an interest or part of the principle.
• The sea is mentioned in the context of trade and ocean wealth, like pearls, and shells.